ISSN: 1543-9518|Vol. 24

Investigation of Korean female golfers’ success factors on the LPGA Tour from 1998 to 2007

WonYul Bae

Abstract

Se Ri Pak is arguably the most famous Korean name ever to play on the LPGA Tour. Ten years after Pak’s debut in 1998, 42 Korean players are now playing on the LPGA Tour. This international phenomenon over the past decade has produced a lot of Korean players and many Korean victories. Nineteen-Koreans have won 64 LPGA Tour events over the past decade. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to analyze the reasons why Korean female golfers have been successful in securing such a dominant position on the LPGA Tour. The survey used in this study was distributed to Korean players who participated in a professional golf event (State Farm Classic Tournament). The results of this study revealed that hard practice, certain goal, and family support were selected as the most important factors to be success on the LPGA Tour by Korean players.

Key words: golf, marketing, consumer behavior, retail

Introduction

With the development of the internet, it is now possible to easily access international newspaper, magazines, blogs, and other media in order to secure news and information
from around the world. For instance, individuals in the United States who are interested in news about Korea and/or its citizens can go to Korean media outlets
and access information about myriad topics concerning Korea. While finding news through Korean media outlets was fairly easy, finding Korean news stories in
American television news programs or cable networks was relatively difficult and uncommon. (Yes, finding information was difficult) When Chan-Ho Park became
the first Korean Major League Baseball (MLB) to be signed by the Los Angeles Dodgers in 1994, and Se Ri Pak, became the first Korean to win the U.S. Open
Tournament and advance to the LPGA (Ladies Professional Golf Association) Tour in 1998, the Korean people could get more news about them through American television
programs or ESPN (Entertainment and Sport Programming Network) cable program. With South Korea’s economy in shambles in 1998, Chan Ho Park and Se Ri Pak gave
encouragement and hope to Korean people. When Chan Ho Park announced the starting pitcher for the L.A. Dodgers’ game or Se Ri Pak would participated in one of
the LPGA Tour tournaments, Korean television programs and big screens in Seoul city aired these game. As Korean people were watching Park and Pak’s victories
for the Major League baseball game and the LPGA Tour tournaments, Korean people felt some sense of satisfaction from them during the difficult Korean recession
period (16). Most Korean people believed that when these two players were signed to go into a major sports league, they would fail, because of differences related
to skill, physicality, culture, language, food, and a host of other potential challenges. However, Park and Pak overcame these supposed problems and were
very successful in their respective sports. The success of Park and Pak gave great hope to the Korean people to also overcome their serious economic problems
in the late 1990s (16). In addition, as Pak in her rookie season on the LPGA Tour collected four victories (including two major tournaments wins), other
Korean female golfers began to complete and eventually join the LPGA Tour.
As a result of the door opened by Pak and the record of her achievements, South Korea now has the largest international contingent on the LPGA Tour (14). One
of the interesting things about the Korean female golfers on the LPGA Tour is that while the Korean players have a large number of victories, they have not
turned out a dominant player since Pak burst on the scene a decade ago with victories in the 1998 McDonald’s LPGA Championship and the U.S. Women’s Open.
Ten years after Pak’s debut in 1998, 42 Korean players (i.e., Se Ri Pak, Mi-Hyun Kim, Grace Park, Shi-Hyun Ahn, Soo Yeong Kang, etc) are now playing on the LPGA
Tour. Every year, Korean female players are increasing on the LPGA Tour. Nineteen-Koreans (i.e., Se Ri Pak, Mi-Hyun Kim, Grace Park, Hee Won Han, Jeong Jang, etc) have
won 64 LPGA Tour events over the past decade. No other professional sports league in the world has as many Korean players. Only a few Korean female handball players
are playing on professional teams in Japan and Europe, and only one basketball player has played for the WNBA (Women’s National Basketball Association). The
numerous Korean players and victories on the LPGA Tour is a unique phenomenon. One may wonder why Korean female players are so prevalent on the LPGA Tour and
so good at the sport of golf. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to analyze the reasons why Korean female golfers have been successful in securing such
a dominant position on the LPGA Tour.

The History of the LPGA and the KLPGA
The Ladies Professional Golf Association (LPGA) Tour is the longest running women’s professional sport association (1). The LPGA Tour was founded in 1950
by 13 members (1). Based on the LPGA Tour history, in its first season, the LPGA Tour hosted 14 tournaments with $50,000 in total prize money. In 1959,
the LPGA Tour included 26 tournaments and played for more than $200,000 in total prize money. The LPGA Tour featured 33 events and prize money of more than $58
million which was the highest ever paid out in LPGA Tour history. The LPGA Tour players competed for an average purse of $1.7 million for the 2008 season (1).
While the LPGA Tour is over a half-century old, the Korean Ladies Professional Golf Association (KLPGA) Tour was founded in 1978. In its first season, the
KLPGA Tour held only one tournament. However, in the 2007 season, the KLPGA Tour hosted 22 tournaments with over $7 million in total prize money. About
1,003 members were registered as active members in 2006, and KLPGA Tour players, such as Se Ri Pak, Mi-Hyun Kim and Shi Hyun Ahn are also playing for the LPGA
Tour (6).

 Korean Golf Circumstances

Despite the increasing popularity of golf in the world, golf has not always been a popular sport in Korea. The sport of golf was socially recognized as
a luxury in Korea because most Korean people believed that only wealthy people could participate in golf (8). Koreans have long associated golf with corruption
and greed (2). Government officials with meager salaries could never afford to pay the fairway fees; however they could play golf by receiving bribes (2).
The cost of participating in the sport of golf in Korea is very expensive, at least compared to playing golf in the United States. Compared to golf courses
green fees in the United States, where the average cost of playing an 18-hole is about $36 including cart, Korean golf course green fees are about $140 for
an 18-hole (5). Although Korean golf courses often provide better services than that received at typical golf courses in the United States (i.e., caddies, locker
rooms, saunas, other amenities), spending over $150 for participating in a one-time leisure activity is not easy money to come by for median-low income level people
in Korea. However, the golfing population has gradually increased from the late 1990’s. Shin and Nam (16) posit that since 1998, the number of Korean golfers
is gradually increasing because of the economic downturn in Korea which has forced golf courses to decrease membership and green fees. In 2004, there were
approximately 176 golf courses in Korea. According to Korea Golf Index (7), golf participation population was about 2.5 million.

Korean LPGA Tour Players

Ok Hee Ku is a pioneer of Korean women’s golf. She won 19 tournaments in Korea since 1980 and won 23 international tournaments since 1985. Ok-Hee Ku has mostly
played in Korea and Japan. Ok-Hee Ku was the first Korean winner on the LPGA Tour. She won at the 1998 LPGA Standard Register Turquiose Classic Tournament.
She had the record of the most wins in a single season until it was broken by Ji Yai Shin in 2007 (13). Woo-Soon Ko was the first player who won twice on
the LPGA Tour. She won at the Toray Japan Queen Cup in both 1994 and 1995 (17). Ten years later, Ok-Hee Ku won on the LPGA Tour, Se Ri Pak advanced to the LPGA
Tour and won two major tournaments (U.S. Women’s Open and LPGA Championship) and won two other tournaments during her rookie season. Pak won total 24 tournaments
on the LPGA Tour and six victories on the KLPGA Tour since 1996. In addition, Pak was inducted into the World Golf Hall of Fame in 2007. After Pak advanced
to the LPGA Tour, other Korean female golfers were also challenged to join the LPGA Tour because they gained confidence watching Pak’s successful entry into
the professional tournaments. Largely because of Pak’s achievements, South Korea now has the largest international contingent on the LPGA Tour. Ten years after
Se Ri Pak’s debut, 42 Korean players (not counting Korean-American women like Christina Kim or Michelle Wie), which is 23% of total players (179 LPGA players)
and 50% of international players from Korea in 2007 season, are playing on the LPGA Tour. Nineteen Koreans have won 57 LPGA Tour events, but 44 of those were
from four players: Pak (24), Mi Hyun Kim (eight), Grace Park (six) and Hee-Won Han (six) (18). From 1998 to 2007, five Korean players were named as Rolex Rookie
of the Year including Se-Ri Pak, Mi-Hyun Kim, Hee Won Han, Shi Hyun Ahn, and Seon Hwa Lee. Only three American players, one Mexican, and one Brazilian player
were named Rookie of the Year.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Determining the success factors of Korean players on the LPGA Tour has not been easily accomplished. Shin and Nam (16) tried to explain the social structural
of Korean golfers’ success. They studied the golfing boom in Korea, Korean family structure, the goal-oriented nature of Korean people, the Korean psyche, and
other possible factors for success. One of the interesting issues was coming from Shin and Nam’s study related to the Korean family structure. According
to These scholars, one of the reasons the Korean players can focus and devote themselves to golf is the close involvement of parents, because Korean family
members usually live together in a single household until the children marry. This lengthy period of living together develops strong and close relationships
between parents and children. As Korean young female golfers come to the U.S. to learn golf or participate in a tournament, their father or mother, or both
of them, come to the U.S. together to fully support them. Therefore, young Korean players can play well and feel comfortable staying with their parents in a foreign
country. Usually, Korean players fathers’ roles are that of coach, caddy, adviser, manager or driver during the season. Their mothers are doing such things as
cooking Korean food or doing laundry for their daughter.
Lee, Kim, and Lee (9) credited factors such as Korean parents’ passion for education for their children, corporate sponsorships of players, and early golf education
as the sources of Korean female golfers’ successes on the LPGA Tour. Lee, et al. (9) explained that getting corporate sponsorships for players is one of
the most important factors in playing golf well on the Tour. According to Norwood (12), golfers need a minimum of $150,000 a year to play on the PGA Tour, $100,000
for the Champions Tour which is for Senior players, $75,000 for the LPGA Tour, $55,000 for the Nationwide Tour which is the developmental tour for the PGA
Tour. However, international players need at least $100,000 to play on the LPGA Tour because of international flight fares, staying at hotels and eating food
with their parents, tutoring in English, and other expenses. For example, an LPGA Tour player normally needs about $2,000 for travel, hotels, and meals per
event. In addition, a player should pay at least $1,000 for the first two rounds to her caddie. If a player makes the cut and plays three and four rounds of
the event, she needs to pay more to the caddie. Then, a player needs at least $5,000 to break-even for the event after receiving prize money and taxing. If
a player plans to participate in 20 events per year, she needs about $100,000 for the season. Therefore, players need to get corporate sponsors to be able
to play well on the LPGA Tour under stable financial conditions.
Recently, another study examined the success factors of Korean female professionals on the LPGA Tour. Ramstad (14) believed that hard practice, a passion for golf,
and family structures have led to Korea’s having the world’s best women golfers. In addition, Korean government’s elite sport system for young athletes and strong
spiritual strength are major reasons for their success on the LPGA Tour (9,11). A number of researchers have also suggested that culturalism, spiritual strength,
and sport globalization are added factors to the success (3,10). Korean LPGA Tour golfers had strong mental power and more confidence rather than do any
other LPGA players (9). Lee et al., (9) looked at a socio-cultural analysis on the success of Korean players on the LPGA Tour and Shin & Nam (16) looked
at the case of Korean players on the LPGA Tour as approaching to socio-cultural issues such as gender roles, culture, and sport. Lee et al., (9) anticipated
factors such as Korean parents’ passion for education for their children, corporate sponsorships of players, and early golf education as the sources of Korean female
golfers’ successes on the LPGA Tour, but never before has been studies to approach to experimental studies about the success factors of Korean LPGA players. This
research will be asked one question to Korean LPGA players that what is/are the most important factor/s to survive on the LPGA Tour. Therefore, the purpose
of this study is to analyze the reasons why Korean female golfers have been successful in securing such a dominant position on the LPGA Tour..

METHODS

Sample and data collection
In order to accomplish the goals of this study, there was a need to secure the involvement of Korean players on the LPGA Tour. Therefore, this study was conducted
in Springfield, IL, where the 2007 LPGA State Farm Classic tournament was held. A total of 145 players participated in this tournament. A questionnaire was
distributed to Korean players at the practice putting green and driving range. Twenty-five of 26 potential Korean players at the tournament event participated
in this survey for a response rate of 96%. The golfers who participated in this study were asked to answer one question. A total of 25 out of 26 Korean players
responded and only one player refused to answer a question because of practice. (Total 31 participated in the tournament, not survey. I distributed this questionnaire
to 26 players).

Instrumentation

Based on the review of academic literature (5,9,16) and the accounts in traditional media outlets (i.e., newspapers, magazines) that examined, Korean golfers’ success
factors, a questionnaire was developed that included comprised of 10 factors (hard practice, family support, sponsorship, Korean athlete elite education
system, confidence, turning professional early, the Korean chopstick culture, competitive Korean social circumstance, certain goals, and a passion to play
golf) in one question to find out which factors most influenced Korean players to achieve success on the LPGA Tour. After collection of the data, the analysis
of the results involved frequency counts and descriptive tabulations. For instance, “1” was a hard practice, “2” family support, “3” Sponsorship, “4” Korean elite
athlete system, “5” confidence, “6” Turned professional early, “7” Korean chopstick culture, “8” competitive Korean social circumstance, “9” certain goal, and “10”
passion to golf. The research question was to select the top three reasons why Korean female golfers have been successful in securing such a dominant position
on the LPGA Tour.

RESULTS

The study found that hard practice was the first reason for success on the LPGA Tour. 22 Korean players selected “1” (hard practice) as the top reason for dominating on the LPGA Tour. The second reason from 18 out of 25 Korean players was “9” (certain goals) and 15 players answered that “2” (Family support) was one of the top three reasons for success on the LPGA Tour. Korean players marked “10” (passion for golf) as the fourth reason by players. Four out of 26 players selected “6” (turned professional early). Six Korean players were selected “7” (Korean culture, two players), “8” (competitive Korean social circumstance, two players), and “5” (confidence, two players). Interestingly, only two players marked sponsorship or the Korean Athlete Elite Education System. Therefore, based on these results, sponsorship, Korean Athlete Elite Education System, competitive Korean Social Circumstance, the Korean Chopstick Culture, and confidence were not important factors to success on the LPGA Tour for Korean players. This study suggested that the social phenomenon or Korean culture was not the important factor but rather the individual’s talent or effort (hard practice, certain goal, and passion to golf) to success on the LPGA Tour.

DISCUSSION

Lee et al., (9) anticipated factors such as Korean parents’ passion for education for their children, corporate sponsorships of players, and early golf education as the sources of Korean female golfers’ successes on the LPGA Tour. However, this study found that hard practice, certain goal, and family support are the
most important factors to success on the LPGA Tour. This result described that individual’s skills, efforts, and abilities are more important factors than other factors (i.e., sponsorships, Korean chopstick cultures, or competitive Korean social circumstances).
This study also found that family support was also important factor to success on the LPGA Tour. Shin & Nam (16) also anticipated that family support is the one of the important factor. This result will help to young Korean golfers who are trying to advance to the LPGA Tour. If young Korean female golfers follow
the success factors which were selected by Korean LPGA players who advanced the LPGA Tour since 1998, young Korean female golfers might success easier than ever on the LPGA Tour. As noted above, hard practice, certain goal, and family support were the top three reasons to success on the LPGA Tour.
There are a number of limitations that should be considered when interpreting the results of the study. First this study used only one question to answer. One question to answer might not be generalized on the result. Future study should consider several questions to find the factors. Another limitation of
this study was sample size. This study collected twenty five samples. Total 42 Korean LPGA Tour players were playing for the LPGA Tour in 2007. Therefore, future study should also consider collecting more samples at the LPGA Tour tournaments which is the most Korean players participate in.

CONCLUSIONS

This study was to analyze the reasons why Korean female golfers have been successful in securing such a dominant position on the LPGA Tour. This study found that individual’s skills, efforts, and abilities are more important factors than other factors such as sponsorships, Korean chopstick cultures, or competitive Korean social circumstances.

APPLICATIONS IN SPORT

The significance of these finding is related to the work of sport marketing professionals. With the increasing numbers of Korean female golfers on the LPGA Tour, the LPGA Tour needs to consider Korean players as a marketing strategy. According to Blauvelt (4), the largest percentage of the LPGA Tour TV rights fees came from South Korea. In 1998, the majority of LPGA Tour TV rights came from the U.S. because there had been no Korean players on the LPGA Tour at that time. In addition, the LPGA Tour might consider using a Korean language version online as a way of increasing international traffic, because many Korean fans are visiting the LPGA Tour official website to check Korean players’ stats and information. If the LPGA Tour put products related to Korean players on the online pro shop, the sales of merchandise might greatly increase due to Korean fans. As many Korean players are playing on the LPGA Tour, Korean companies might want to sponsor the LPGA Tour. Before 1998 season, there had been no Korean sponsor on the LPGA Tour. However, since 1998, Cheil Jedang and Samsung (both of which are major corporations in South Korea) took title sponsors for inaugural events and regular tour tournaments. Koron also signed as title sponsor of Koron-LPGA cross-cultural professional development program. This program was designed to help all LPGA Tour players be successful on the LPGA Tour. Therefore, if the LPGA Tour focuses on increasing marketing around Korean players, Korean fans, TV right fees, sponsors, etc will increase and make more revenue for the LPGA Tour.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

None

REFERENCES

  1. About LPGA. (2008). LPGA.com. Retrieved June 6, 2008, from
    www.lpga.com
  2. Baker, M. (1998). Golfer gives weary Korea something to cheer about. Christian Science Monitor, 90(162), p.6.
  3. Bale, J., & Maruire, J.A. (1994). The global sports arena: Athletic talent migration in an interdependent world. London: Frank Cass.
  4. Blauvelt, H. (2003, June 5). Se Ri Pak’s success on LPGA tour inspires countrywomen. USA Today, Retrieved June 6, 2008, from
    www.usatoday.com
  5. Kim, C.R. (2006). The development of proposals to popularize golf as leisure activity in Korea through benchmarking of the U.S. golf cultural characteristics. Journal of Korea Sport Research, 17(5), 375-384.
  6. KLPGA Introduction. (2007). KLPGA.com. Retrieved June 7, 2008, from
    www.klpga.com
  7. Korea Golf Index. (2007). KGAGOLF.or.kr. Retrieved June 5, 2008, from
  8. Kwon, S. (2007). Study on a popularization plan through recognition of Korea’s golf culture. Journal of Korea Sport Research, 18(3), 615-624.
  9. Lee, Y.S., Kim, Y.H., & Lee, C.W. (2004). A socio-cultural analysis on the success of Korean players on LPGA Tour. Journal of Leisure and Recreation Studies, 27, 5-17.
  10. Magee, J., & Sugden, J. (2002). The world at their feet: Professional football and international labor migration. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 26(4), 421-437.
  11. Mook, H.S. (2008, April 23). The effect of extracurricular work of golf. Ma Il Kyung Jae, Retrieved May 15, 2008, from
    news.mk.co.kr
  12. Norwood, B. (2005, May 30). Backing a Tour pro. Business Week, Retrieved June 8, 2008,
    www.businessweek.com
  13. Ok Hee Ku. (2007). Seoul Sisters.com. Retrieved June 6, 2008, from
    www.seoulsisters.com
  14. Ramstad, E. (2007, April 25). Why Korea makes the world”s best women golfers. The Wall Street Journal, pp. A1, A11.
  15. Seo, J. (2002, October 2). Taylor Made riding high on golf boom in Korea. The Korea Times, p. 9.
  16. Shin, E.H., & Nam, E.A. (2004). Culture, gender roles, and sport: The case of Korean Players on the LPGA Tour. Journal of Sport & Social Issues, 28(3), 223-244.
  17. Sirak, R. (2007, June 20). Pak leads Korean pack. Golf World, Retrieved June 5, 2008, from
    www.golfdigest.com
  18. Stats and News. (2007). LPGA.com. Retrieved June 7, 2008, from

www.lpga.com

 

TABLE 1

The LPGA Rookie of the Year from 1998 to 2007

Year Name Nationality
1998 Se Ri Pak Korea
1999 Mi Hyun Kim Korea
2000 Dorothy Delasin U.S.
2001 Hee Won Han Korea
2002 Beth Bauer U.S
2003 Lorena Ochoa Mexico
2004 Shi Hyun Ahn Korea
2005 Paula Creamer U.S.
2006 Seon Hwa Lee Korea
2007 Angela Park Brazil

 

TABLE 2
Korean players’ success factors on the LPGA Tour


Factors

The total number of times listed(For
your question,
players can select three factors. 22 out of 26 players select “1”.
Hard Practice (“1”) 22
Certain Goal (“9”) 18
Family Support (“2”) 15
Passion to Golf (“10”) 7
Turned Professional Early (“6”) 4
Confidence (“5”) 2
Korean Chopstick Culture (“7”) 2
Competitive Korean Social Circumstance (“8”) 2
Korean Athlete Elite Education System (“4”) 1
Sponsorship (“3”) 1
2020-06-02T11:24:58-05:00November 15th, 2012|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology, Women and Sports|Comments Off on Investigation of Korean female golfers’ success factors on the LPGA Tour from 1998 to 2007
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Female Athletes and Eating Disorders

Abstract

Sports should prevent athletes from having eating disorders not develop eating disorders. There is evidence that female athletes are at a risk of developing disordered eating. The purpose of this study was to find how prevalent eating disorders are in female athletes and examine factors that may have a relationship with eating disorders.

A questionnaire containing two instruments was distributed to volunteer female athletes at a Midwestern university. The EAT 26 was used to measure the prevalence of eating disorders. The ATHLETE questionnaire was used to inquire some factors that may have a relationship with eating disorders among athletes. Results showed 14.3% of the respondents scored a 20 and above on the EAT 26 and thus considered at risk of having an eating disorder. The ATHLETE questionnaire showed that there were some significant negative correlations between the EAT 26 score and participant’s feelings about their body, feelings about sports, feelings about performance, and feelings about eating. The negative correlations meant that the more the participants scored high on their feelings about their body, sports, performance, and eating, the less likely they scored low on the EAT 26, indicating they did not have a risk of an eating disorder.

This study implies that when athletes feel good about their body, sport, performance and their eating, the less likely they will have an eating disorder. This study makes an important contribution in understanding female athletes and eating disorders as well as factors that may have a relationship to eating disorders in female athletes.

(more…)

2017-08-03T10:50:58-05:00August 30th, 2012|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology, Women and Sports|Comments Off on Female Athletes and Eating Disorders
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Description of Phases and Discrete Events of the Lacrosse Shot

Submitted by John A. Mercer and Jason H. Nielson

Abstract

The lacrosse shot is a vital skill of the offensive player. Despite the growth of the sport of lacrosse, there is a paucity of research on describing the biomechanics of lacrosse specific skills. The purpose of this commentary is to describe the phases and discrete events during a lacrosse shot. Phases are logical groups of movements used to accomplish a common goal whereas discrete events are specific actions that occur during a movement. For the purpose of this commentary, the lacrosse shot described is one that is taken with the intent of shooting as fast as possible. Through inspection of practice, game, and publically available video (30-1000 Hz) for a variety of ability and ages, this lacrosse shot can be described using the following phases: Approach, crank-back, stick acceleration, stick deceleration, follow through, and recovery. Each phase is defined by specific discrete events that indicate the beginning/ending of the phase. This paper forms a frame work for research on the lacrosse shot as well as coaching tips for enhancement of the shot. The end-goal of this work is to assist coaches and players in identifying the critical features of the lacrosse shot that are important for achieving a high-velocity and accurate shot.

Introduction 

Although the sport of lacrosse has a long and rich history, there is a paucity of research on the movements and skills that are part of the game. Participation in lacrosse has grown 10% per year on average from 2001 to 2010 (18). The total increase in number of players (male and female) has grown from 253,931 players in 2001 to 624,593 players in 2010 with the greatest growth in youth and high school levels (18). Overall, youth lacrosse growth has outpaced the growth of any other sport.

Along with this growth has come a need for coaching expertise to teach players critical skills and game play strategy. Interestingly, the sport is lacking in even basic kinematic description of certain key movements. For example, even though some research on lacrosse is emerging on injuries (4, 7, 8, 9, 12), conditioning/testing techniques (11, 15), accuracy (14), passing (13) and shooting (6) kinematics, ball (5), and player (16, 17) characteristics and some early work on teaching lacrosse skills (2, 3), there is no kinematic description of the phases and discrete events of the shot.

It makes sense to develop a description of certain key movements that are part of the shot in order to identify critical features that increase performance and/or skill acquisition. For example, baseball pitching has a strong body of research that includes description of phases and discrete events of the baseball pitch. Kinematic and Kinetic data are often analyzed within a phase in order to compare and contrast different types of pitches, for example (e.g., 10). Presently, there is no such description of the phases and discrete events of the lacrosse shot.

Part of the challenge in forming a model of the lacrosse shot is that there are many different techniques for shooting a lacrosse ball. For example, some players shoot overhand, some underhand, or side arm. Likewise, there are many game situations where the shot technique is unique due to the position of the player shooting as well as the interaction with the defender and/or goalie. For example, players may be positioned just outside the goal crease and will receive a pass and shoot in one continuous motion (i.e., “quick stick”). Likewise, during a game, players are often dodging defenders and shooting on the run while being checked, jumping, and/or having movements hindered in some manner by the defender. For that reason, it is difficult to fit all lacrosse shots into a single descriptive model. Nevertheless, it is important to form a model of the lacrosse shot as a framework for research to identify the critical aspects necessary for an accurate and high speed shot. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to provide a description of the phases and discrete events of the lacrosse shot.

The Lacrosse Shot

For the purpose of this paper, we will describe the phases and discrete events of a situation where a player is shooting at the goal with maximal velocity. In this scenario, the player is allowed to take approach steps. This would be analogous to a player shooting from the perimeter of the box with no defender hindering or restricting movement in any way. This type of shot is common in a game, especially off a fast break when a face off is won or during a man-up situation (i.e., the opposing team is playing with one less defender due to a penalty situation).

To gain an understanding of the kinematics, we reviewed game, practice, and publically available (YouTube) video taken from a wide range of ability and ages of players that used a variety of recording speeds (30-1000 Hz). In these videos, the camera placement was often unique which allowed for viewing the shot from different perspectives. Overall, the movements could be grouped into logical phases consisting of approach, crank-back (wind-up), stick acceleration, deceleration, follow-through, and recovery. We also felt it was important to further break down the crank-back phase into two smaller phases (i.e., A and B) since we think the preparatory movements in each of these sub-phases are important to shot performance.

In order to describe the phases and discrete events of the shot, it is necessary to first define some lacrosse specific terminology. Figure 1 is an illustration of a player in the act of shooting. We will use the term ‘stick’ when referring to the combination of two main equipment components: The shaft and the head. The head is firmly connected to the shaft (however, the head can be removed and placed on a different shaft). In this illustration, a short stick is used. There are times when a player is shooting using a long-pole or goalie stick; in these situations, the phases and discrete events are the same as presented here, but the movements in each phase may be unique due to the characteristics of the stick (e.g., length, mass, moment of inertia).

Screen Shot 2014-05-13 at 2.29.08 PM

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 1: Illustration of a player in the act of shooting.  Top arm, Bottom arm, Drive leg, and Lead leg are all illustrated.

For player specific terminology, we will use the phrase ‘bottom arm’ to refer to the entire limb distal to the shoulder (i.e., upper arm, forearm, hand) in which the hand is gripping the shaft near the end the shaft. We will use the phrase ‘bottom hand’ when referring specifically to the hand of the bottom arm. We will use ‘top arm’ and ‘top hand’ to refer to the arm/hand that grips the shaft between the bottom hand and stick head. A right handed shot is one in which the right arm is the top arm; a left handed shot is one where the left arm is the top arm.

For the lower extremity, we will use the term ‘drive leg’ to refer to the leg that is planted on the ground pushing the player forward. Likewise, we will use the term ‘lead leg’ to refer to the leg that is planted in front of the player while shooting. Analogous terms for ‘lead leg’ are ‘plant leg’ or ‘blocking leg.’ When shooting right handed, the drive leg is the right leg and the lead leg is the left leg (vice versa for shooting left handed).

The phases of the shot and the discrete events separating each phase are described in Table 1 and described in more detail below.

  1. Approach. The approach begins with the player initiating movement and ends when the foot of the drive leg contacts the ground. During this phase, the player is taking several steps advancing towards the goal with the intent to shoot. The number of steps, the style of the approach (e.g., stepping forward, sideways, backwards, cross-over, hopping, etc.), and the velocity of the approach varies between players. However, what is common among all the approach styles is that it ends when the drive leg contacts the ground.
  2. Crank back. The crank back is analogous to the wind-up or cocking phase of throwing a ball. This phase consists of the preparatory movements that proceed accelerating the stick (i.e., angular motion) with the intent of releasing the ball towards the goal. The crank back begins with the foot of the drive leg contacting the ground and ends when the top arm reaches maximum elbow flexion. If a 3D motion capture analysis is completed, an alternative ending discrete event would be the moment when stick angular acceleration velocity is continuously in the same direction as during the Stick Acceleration phase (next). We have further sub-divided the crank back phase into two sub-phases (A and B).

o   Crank back – A. The Crank back – A phase begins when the foot of the drive leg contacts the ground and ends when the foot of the lead leg contacts the ground. This phase could also be described as a ‘drive step’ when focusing on the lower extremity.

o   Crank back – B. The Crank back – B phase begins with lead foot contact and ends when the elbow of the top arm reaches maximum flexion. The movements in this phase are still preparatory movements to accelerating the stick towards the goal and would still be considered ‘wind-up’ movements.

  1. Stick acceleration. Stick acceleration begins when the elbow of the top arm has reached maximum flexion and then starts extending. This phase ends with ball release. The duration of this phase is very short and dynamic.
  2. Stick deceleration. Stick deceleration begins once the ball release has occurred and ends when the elbow of the top arm has reached maximum extension.
  3. Follow-through. The follow-through phase begins when the top arm has reached maximum extension and ends when trunk rotation has been terminated.
  4. Recovery. The recovery phase begins with the end of trunk rotation and represents the movements the player needs to make to prepare for the next task.

Screen Shot 2014-05-13 at 2.32.33 PM

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 1: The phases and discrete events that describe the lacrosse shot.

Figure 2 is an illustration of the discrete events for the lacrosse shot in a time lapse sequence. Although this gives a good visual of the separation of phases, the figure is limited in that it does not give a sense of the duration of each phase. It would be helpful through future research to document the timing of the phases for different skill levels as well as when comparing left and right handed shots of an individual player.

Screen Shot 2014-05-13 at 2.30.57 PM

Figure 2: Phases (bottom) and Discrete Events (top) of the lacrosse shot.

Discussion

The intent of creating a model of the phases and discrete events for the lacrosse shot is to create a framework for research as well as constructing coaching tips for the enhancement of shot speed and accuracy. For example, recently we investigated muscle activity of the top and bottom arms during shooting (1). In that study, we examined the muscle activity ½ second before and after ball release. Although it was insightful to identify the different roles of muscles when considering the top and bottom arms and that the wrist flexors/extensors were more active than suspected, the meaningfulness of that work would be more significant if muscle activity were described for each phase. This type of research would provide insight into the importance of timing of muscle contractions that led to a faster shot velocity. Likewise, that research would lead to developing training programs and drills to develop a faster shot that is also accurate.

The advantage of using the phases as a framework for research is that movements that share a common goal are grouped together. For example, it makes sense to understand muscle activity magnitudes and patterns during the crank-back phase of the shot independent of the magnitudes and patterns during the time when the stick is being accelerated to release the ball. In our previous work (1), the ½ second analysis before ball release likely represented muscle activity during both crank back and stick acceleration phases. We now believe that analyzing muscle activity within each phase is important in identifying the critical features of a shot that allow for high ball velocity at release and/or accuracy of the shot. For example, the initial inspection of elbow flexion/extension patterns has lead to the hypothesis that peak elbow flexion velocity during the crank back-B phase is important to shot velocity (1). It may be that elbow flexion preceding elbow extension during the stick acceleration phase elicits a stretch-shortening reflex that increases elbow extension velocity during the acceleration phase. The analogy is that elbow flexion during crank back-B would serve to function similar in the same manner as the downward (i.e., counter-movement) movement during a vertical jump. The implications of this observation, if it is substantiated by research, is that training programs should be focused on strengthening exercises that incorporate elbow flexion preceding rapid extension vs. simply strengthening elbow extension.

By creating terminology for phases and discrete events, not only will research be given a context of which to formulate description of kinematics and kinetics of the shot, coaching tips may be more directed and purposeful. For example, some players might be able to increase shot speed if unnecessary crank-back movements are eliminated and/or the stick is positioned properly prior to the acceleration phase (i.e., during crank back-B phase). Research is needed to compare and contrast the kinematics during each phase between players with different level of skill as well as between shooting left and right handed. This type of research would likely be helpful to coaches and trainers in order that there is a better understanding of which movements to reinforce and which movements should be eliminated during a shot to maximize speed.

It is important to recognize that the phases and discrete event model presented is limited and there may be times when the model needs to be modified. For example, there may be some benefit to studying shot kinematics when there is no approach phase. This would be analogous to shooting while both feet are planted. Although shot speed is not maximized in this scenario, there are game scenarios when players have to shoot quickly vs. trying to shoot as fast as possible. In this case, the discrete events of drive leg and lead leg contact would need to be modified since both feet are in contact with the ground in this scenario. It is hoped that this commentary will stimulate further research on the lacrosse shot and other models of different styles of shooting are created.

There may also be a need to modify the discrete events used to define each phase. For example, depending on the instruments available to analyze the shot kinematics, the start of stick acceleration may be best defined based upon when the angular velocity of the stick is continuously in the direction of the shot (vs. maximum top arm elbow flexion). In order to capture that, either a 2D top-view or 3D kinematic analysis would need to be carried out. In the present model, we based the discrete event identification from a 2D camera placed either to the side or slightly behind/in front of the player.

It is important to also recognize that the discrete events themselves may not be critical movement characteristics. The importance of the specific discrete events, for this paper, is that they define the start and end of a phase. Biomechanical analyses can then be focused on maximum and/or minimum kinematic and kinetic parameters during each phase. We also believe that it makes sense to compare kinematics and kinetics of the upper and lower body at the occurrence of the discrete events. For example, the horizontal stick position at the moments of drive and lead leg contact may be important characteristics of the shot.

Summary

We have presented a model of the phases and discrete events of the lacrosse shot along with basic terminology (e.g., top arm, top hand, bottom arm, bottom hand, drive leg, lead leg) that can be used when describing movement characteristics during the lacrosse shot. The phases represent groups of movements that share a common goal that contributes to shot speed. Each phase is separated by a discrete event, which is a specific event that occurs in a brief moment in time. In the context of shooting the ball for to achieve maximum velocity, we described the shot using the approach, crank-back (A and B sub-phases), stick acceleration, stick deceleration, follow through, and recovery phases. This model will provide a frame work for lacrosse directed research as well as providing a context for coaching tips to improve shot speed.


References

  1. Agnelli, C., McCllelan, J., Tarno, J., Nielson, J., & Mercer, J.A. (2011). Preliminary inspection of muscle activity during a lacrosse shot. Proceedings from the annual meeting of the Southwest Chapter of the American College of Sports Medicine, October.
  2. Barrett, K.R., & Collie, S. (1996). Children learning lacrosse from teachers learning to teach it: The discovery of pedagogical content knowledge by observing children’s movement. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 67, 297-309.
  3. Barrett, K.R., Williams, K., McLester, J., & Ljungkvist (1997). Developmental sequences for the vertical cradle in lacrosse: An exploratory study. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 16, 469-489.
  4. Bowers, A.L., Horneff, J.G., Baldwin, K.D., Huffmman, R., & Sennett, B.J. (2010). Thumb injuries in Intercollegiate Men’s Lacrosse. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 38, 527-531.
  5. Crisco, J.J., Drewniak, E.I., Alvarez, M.P., & Spenciner, D.B. (2005). Physical and mechanical properties of various field lacrosse balls. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 21, 383-393.
  6. Crisco, J.J., Rainbow, M.J., & Wang, E. (2009). Modeling the lacrosse stick as a rigid body underestimates shot ball speeds. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 25, 184-191.
  7. Dick, R., Agel, J., & Marshall, S.W. (2007). National Collegiate Athletic Association Injury Surveillance System Commentaries: Introduction and methods. Journal of Athletic Training, 42, 173-182.
  8. Dick, R., Romani, W.A., Agel, J., Case, J.G., & Marshall, S.W. (2007). Descriptive epidemiology of collegiate Men’s Lacrosse injuries: National Collegiate Athletic Association Injury Surveillance System, 1988-1989 through 2003-2004. Journal of Athletic Training, 42, 255-261.
  9. Elkousy, H.A., Janssen, H., Ferraro, J., Levin, S., & Speer, K. (2000). Lacrosse goalkeeper’s thumb. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 28, 317-321.
  10. Escamilla, R.F., Fleisig, G.S., Barrentine, S.W., Zheng, N., & Andrews, J.R. (1998). Kinematic comparisons of throwing different types of baseball pitches. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 14, 1-23.
  11. Gutowski, A.E., & Rosene, J.M. (2011). Preseason performance testing battery for men’s lacrosse. Strength and Conditioning Journal, 33, 16-22.
  12. Hinton, R.Y., Lincoln, A.E., Almquist, J.L., Douoguih, W.A., & Sharma, K.M. (2005). Epidemiology of lacrosse injuries in high school-aged girls and boys. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 33, 1305-1314.
  13. Livingston L.A. (2006). Recent crosse designs increase ball velocity: Implications for injury in women’s lacrosse. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 9, 299-303.
  14. Marsh, D.W., Richard, L.A., Verre, A.B., & Myers, J. (2010). Relationships among balance, visual search, and lacrosse-shot accuracy. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 24, 1507-1514.
  15. Pistilli, E.E., Ginther, G., & Larsen, J. (2008). Sport –specific strength-training exercises for the sport of lacrosse. Strength and Conditioning Journal, 30, 31-38.
  16. Schmidt, M.N., Gray, P., & Tyler, S. (1981). Selected fitness parameters of college female lacrosse players. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 21, 282-90.
  17. Shaver, L.G. (1980). Body composition, endurance capacity and strength of college lacrosse players. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 20, 213-20.
  18. US Lacrosse (2010). 2010 Participation Survey. Retrieved from http://www.uslacrosse.org.

2014-05-13T14:36:19-05:00August 24th, 2012|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off on Description of Phases and Discrete Events of the Lacrosse Shot
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Technical Abilities of Elite Wheelchair Basketball Players

E. Zacharakis, N. Apostolidis, N. Kostopoulos, T. Bolatoglou

### Abstract

Wheelchair basketball met a rapid growth in recent decades and became one of the most popular and spectacular sports for people with disabilities. Researchers’ efforts to perform tests evaluating the physiological and technical characteristics of the disable athletes have been based on the adoption of tests, used for healthy athletes (7, 15). In addition, different types of disabilities obligated the International Wheelchair Basketball Federation to establish classification degree for the athletes, ranging from 1 to 4.5, according to their disability. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the Greek elite basketball players’ technical skills and to compare their performance, (a) with their classification degree and (b) with recent literature. Fourteen (N=14) Greek wheelchair basketball players, all members of the national team, volunteered to perform six skill tests: (a) 20m sprint, (b) free throws, (c) lay-ups, (d) obstacle dribble, (e) pass for accuracy, and (f) pass for distance. The high classification degree athletes, demonstrated significantly higher performance than those with low classification, only in obstacle dribble test (p <.01), but the trend indicated that athletes with high classification degree demonstrated better performance on tests requiring physical abilities (sprint, lay-ups, obstacle dribble, pass for distance), while those with low classification degree performed better on tests requiring skills and concentration (free throws, pass for accuracy). These results are in accordance with recent literature, although Greek basketball players, demonstrated lower performance compared with those of other countries, where wheelchair basketball is widespread (13). The difference between high and low classification players in obstacle dribble test, caused to the lack of abdominal muscles, while overall performance is affected by the frequency of training and years of involvement with the sport, before the time point of injury (9).

**Key words:** wheelchair, basketball, technical skills

### Introduction

Sporting activities for people with physical disabilities became widespread in recent years. Wheelchair basketball, which is regarded as one of the most popular and spectacular sports for people with disabilities, devised at the end of the Second World War. Specifically, in 1944 the British government commissioned Dr. Guttmann to establish a foundation for care and hospitalization of world-war II spinal cord injured soldiers, in the area of Stoke Mandeville Hospital. Specifically, the team called “The Flying Wheels of Birmingham” is the one that has the legal right to invoke that have devised the wheelchair basketball (1946). The evaluation of the wheelchair basketball players’ technical skills has interested researchers and trainers in the past (4, 14-15). The evaluation methods for the technical characteristics of wheelchair basketball players, mainly based on similar tests used for healthy players (1-2, 11).

The ability to perform the technical skills required for the sport, characterized by the different type and degree, of the players’ disabilities. Each athlete is classified according to degree of disability, and the ability to perform certain tests such as wheelchair sprint, stopping, obstacle dribbling, holding the ball, etc. The classification system for wheelchair basketball, which has been established by the International Wheelchair Basketball Federation (IWBF), with five classification points (1-4.5), differs than U.S.A. applied system, which classifies the players in a three points scale (1-3). The main purpose of the studies so far, is to evaluate the athletes with different classification, and to investigate methods to improve their technical skills.

Brasile (4) demonstrated the performance of wheelchair basketball players which were classified according to the U.S.A. applied system (Classification I, II and III). Participants were evaluated in the following skill tests: (a) obstacle dribble, (b) free-throws, (c) dribbling and shooting the ball, and (d) pass for accuracy. The results showed that: (a) the classification II and III athletes demonstrated higher performance than the others, and (b) classification II athletes demonstrated highest performance.

Moreover, Vanlerberghe and Slock (14) evaluated 30 wheelchair athletes which were classified in the 3 points scale (I, II, III) and they applied: (a) two tests for shooting accuracy (shot under the basket and rebound; obstacle dribble, shot and rebound), (b) two tests for ball-handling (obstacle dribble and dribble around wheelchairs), and (c) two tests for passing ability (speed pass and long pass).

Results revealed significant differences between athletes with different physical disabilities. Athletes of III classification revealed the highest performance, while athletes of I classification revealed the lowest. However, researchers have argued that these specific skill tests can hardly be a reliable method for the evaluation of the wheelchair basketball players.

Also, Brasile (5) divided a sample of 79 wheelchair basketball athletes into three groups, according to their classification in order to evaluated their technical ability in six skill tests: (a) obstacle dribble, (b) 1 minute free throws using the strong hand, (c) 1 minute free throws using the weak hand, (d) pass for accuracy using the strong hand, (e) pass for accuracy using the weak hand and (f) 20m speed run. The skill tests’ results revealed that, athletes of II and III classification referred similar performance between them, but both of them higher than the athletes of I classification. These findings led the researcher to the conclusion that skill tests’ results are influenced by both of the training time and the previous experience in basketball.

Similar results were referred in a recent study by Ergun, Duzgun and Aslan (9), which evaluated 32 wheelchair basketball players. Subjects with low disability lagged behind in lay ups test, in 20m speed run, in shooting around the basket, as well as in obstacle dribble. Additionally, there were detected significant differences between athletes of different coaching experience to the tests of 20m speed run, obstacle dribble and passing for accuracy. Moreover, “age” may be an important factor that affects the performance of the athletes in wheelchair basketball.

Brasile (6) applied six field tests to evaluate twelve male and twelve female wheelchair basketball athletes in the following tests: (a) obstacle dribble, (b) free throws, (c) rebound and shot with the strong hand, (d) rebound and shot with the weak hand, (e) pass for accuracy with the strong hand and (f) pass for accuracy with the weak hand. Within the female group were revealed significant differences in tests requiring capability and discipline (rebounding and shooting the ball, obstacle dribble). In contrast, male athletes revealed improved performance in tests requiring higher power level and especially to those that were related with distance (passing for accuracy and free throws).

Finally, Molik et al. (13) evaluated 109 Poles and Lithuanian wheelchair basketball players in six skill tests. The results of the study revealed that athletes with low classification demonstrated lower performance, compared to athletes with a high classification degree. Particularly, no significant differences were detected between athletes of 1 and 2 classification degree. Reversely there were detected significant differences between athletes of 3 and 4.5 classification degree.

As is evident from reviewing the literature, the topic of wheelchair athletes’ skills is incomplete, and more incomplete regarding the high level athletes. The purpose of the present study is (a) to document the performance of elite basketball players’ in the technical skills, (b) to compare their performance in relation to their classification degree, and (c) to compared and discuss their performance with previous studies.

### Methods

#### Participants

Fourteen (N=14) wheelchair basketball athletes aged 30.1±6.6, all of them members of the national team, volunteered to participate in the present study (See Table 1). The types of their disability were the following: (a) one athlete with incomplete quadriplegia (injury on 6th and 7th cervical), (b) seven athletes with paraplegia (injury on 7th cervical to 12th thoracic), (c) one athlete with poliomyelitis and (d) six amputated athletes. They were divided in two groups of 7 athletes, according to their classification. The first group (n1=7) consisted from athletes of 1-2.5 and the second (n2=7) of 3-4.5 classification degree.

#### Skill tests

The six skill tests which assign the technical characteristics of the wheelchair basketball players and were applied in the present study are the following:

*20m speed run:* Subject takes a position behind the baseline and on the signal starts covering a 20m distance as fast as possible. In a two-minute period the subject had two attempts and the best is recorded (See Figure 1).

*Free throws:* Subject shoots 40 free throws in a series of 20 at a time. A 2-minutes rest inserted between the trials. One point was given for each basket made (See Figure 2).

*Obstacle dribble:* Subject starts on the signal at the tight side of the first obstacle and maneuvers through the course as fast as possible, pushing the wheelchair and dribbling the ball, accordingly the U.S.A. NWBA rules. The test is repeated without rest for one more time. Each dribbling violation adds 5 seconds to the trial time and each time the subject, ball, or wheelchair touch an obstacle, one second added to the trial time. One test trial was given to the subjects, for the familiarization with the test (See Figure 3).

*Lay-up:* Two cones are positioned on the 3-point line, perpendicular to the intersection, of the side lines of the free throw lane and the baseline. The subject takes position out of the 3-point line and starts with the signal to make as many lay-ups as possible within two minutes. After each attempt, he takes his own rebound, dribbles the ball around the opposite cone, preparing for the next lay up. The score was the total amount of the attempts, plus the total number of the successful lay ups (See Figure 4).

*Pass for distance:* The subject places the wheelchair so that the front wheels are behind the base line. Using the chest pass, he tries to pass the ball as far as possible. Subject was performed six attempts and the total of the measured distance was recorded (See Figure 5).

*Pass for accuracy:* The target in the specific test are three concentric rectangles of different sizes (50.8cm X 25.4cm, 101.6cm X 63.5cm and 152.4cm X 101.6cm), drown to smooth wall. The base of the larger rectangle is 60.96cm from the ground and the passing line is 10m (for 2-4.5 classification) or 7.5m (for 1 and 1.5 classification) from the wall. Subjects at the signal take position behind the line and perform 10 passes towards the wall any way the wish (i.e., chest pass, overhead, baseball), but discount any passes where the ball bounces first. If the ball hits the line or inside the smallest rectangle, subjects received 3 points which was the highest score. Two points received for the middle and one for the outer rectangle. Subjects should receive three warm up tosses from their distance and finally, only one trial of ten passes was allowed (See Figure 6).

#### Statistical analysis

Six separate (one for each skill test) independent samples t-tests were conducted to detect possible differences between the groups, and for all the carried skill tests. Significance level was set at p<0.05.

#### Classification

It is very possible, wheelchair basketball athletes because of their differences in disability degree, mobility, physical condition and training experience, to perform the technical skills by a completely different way. The skill’s performance was evaluated during games, from specialized observers called “classificators.” A basketball team comprehends athletes with high disability degree such as spinal cord injuries (e.g., quadriplegia), as well as athletes with low disability degree (e.g., amputation, other disabilities). The athletes are classified from 1 to 4.5, accordingly their basketball skills performance. The high classification degree corresponds to athletes with high functional capacity (therefore lower level of disability). The aim of this classification method is the compulsory participation of all the disable athletes in the games. These regulations have been applied since the early 1940’s, years of the game’s establishment. The first classification methods were based on the athletes’ anatomical characteristics, rather than their functional, so the athletes were classified with base their disability and not on their performance in games. Since 1984 a new classification system is in operation which primarily classified the athletes in four degrees (1, 2, 3, 4). Later, some changes were demonstrated, but the most important was the addition of the half degrees (1.5 – 2.5 – 3.5 – 4.5). The U.S.A National Wheelchair Basketball Association (N.W.B.A.) has established a different classification system, which is consistent by three degrees (1 – 2 – 3). So, the athletes are classified and the total of the in-bounce players’ degree must not exceed a specific number. The International Wheelchair Basketball Federation decided for the international games and tournaments, the limit total degree for the in-bounce players to be the 14. For the national and local championships, the Federations allow the participant teams to come in the games with more limit degrees (e.g., 14.5 or 15).

### Results

Table 2 presents the athletes’ classification and their performance in all the technical skills.

The results of the t-test process are presented in table 3. Significant differences detected only for the obstacle dribble test.

### Discussion

This study examined the performance of a sample of high level wheelchair athletes in basketball skills. It was well-documented that athletes with low classification degree, demonstrated lower performance than those with high classification, but not statistically significant. However, significant differences were presented only to the obstacle dribble test. These results are in accordance with previous studies of considerable researchers (7-8, 14). It is discussed below the results regarding the skill tests separately.

#### 20m speed run

For wheelchair basketball the speed ability holds an important role. Specifically, after adjusting the 24¨ regulation, the individual and team speed, became imperative. Brasile (4-5) referred differences in speed run, between the athletes of 2-3 and 1 classification degree, while Ergun et al (9) referred that training experience affects the speed run ability. Contrary to these researches, no significant differences were detected between the two groups in the present study but, on the one hand Brasile (3-8) used different classification method and on the other hand Ergun (9) detected differences only between the athletes of various experience.

Free throws

Although significant differences were not detected between the groups in this test, it is obvious that small differences, appears to be between the groups (20.7 vs 18.4). The results are in accordance with resent literature however, a point of attention regarding free throw shooting performance is the different technique between the players (10, 12), the different type of the wheelchair, their age and the training level before the injury (5), as well as after it (9).

#### Obstacle dribble

Regarding the obstacle dribble, significant differences were observed between the groups in the present study (55.5sec vs 47.1sec, p<0.001). These results are in accordance with literature, while in both of the studies (8-9, 14) which investigated obstacle dribble, were detected significant differences between the athletes with different classification level. Obviously, in this test, many repeated changes of direction in conjunction with controlling the ball, requiring full activation of the abdominal muscles. In these muscle groups, the difference between athletes of varying classification level, is obvious and has an important role in performance, especially in tests involving abrupt changes of direction. An important finding regarding the obstacle dribble test is the difference between Greek and U.S.A. wheelchair athletes. Vanlerberghe and Slock (14), referred values of 47.1 and 43 sec accordingly for low and high classification athletes.

These differences in performance among the Greek and U.S.A. wheelchair athletes, can be justified by the low level of Greek wheelchair basketball and the fact that their involvement in the sport is more leisure, as well as they do not train more than three times a week during the season. On the other hand, basketball in the U.S.A. is highly developed and the national team is among the top teams in the world while the Greek wheelchair basketball national team, is classified in division III of Europe.

#### Lay ups

Contrary to Ergun et al. (9) results, in this study were not detected significant differences between the groups. Specifically, the low classification athletes referred 9.1±2.3 purposeful efforts, while the high classification athletes 11.1±2.2. Although there is a lack of significance, the difference between the groups (9.1 vs 11.1) highlights a strong trend of the high classification athletes, to perform better scores in the specific test.

#### Pass for accuracy

Significant differences between these groups were not observed. However, it has to be noticed that in this test, the low classification athletes were performed their efforts closer to the target, compared to their co-participants with high classification level, which may have influenced the results. It seems that there is need for further investigation, to explore a better method, for assessing the passing test for accuracy.

#### Pass for distance

No significant differences were detected between the groups (12.1 vs 10.5). These results are in accordance with Vanlerberghe and Slock (14), they are reasonable and explained by the fact that the upper body of the athletes is not damaged, so they don’t lack of power and they can throw the basketball away.

### Conclusions

This study investigated the technical characteristics of elite basketball players with disabilities. Overall, although significant differences were not revealed between high and low classification athletes, the trend indicates that athletes with high classification degree are better on tests requiring physical abilities, while those with low classification degree performed better on tests requiring skills and concentration. It is also important to take into consideration the fact that the Greek athletes with disabilities do not train regularly and intensively and had no training experience before the injury. Future research should focus on planning and application of training programs, in order to ascertain the influence of organized and intensive training to the improvement of their physical and technical skills.

### Application In Sports
The organized and intensive training in athletes with disabilities is efficient and it is very important for their performance, from time to time to be evaluated through valid and reliable tests. The frequent applications of test functions as motive for the athletes, so they are more concentrated, energetic, and effective during practice.

### Acknowledgments

The authors thank all the wheelchair basketball players, participating in this study, for their maximum efforts to achieve the best performance. Their contribution made this research possible.

### Tables

#### Table 1
Anthropometric characteristics of Greek elite wheelchair basketball players

N Disability Class Age Weight (kg) High (cm)
1 PARA 1.0 29 65 180
2 TETRA 1.0 25 74 177
3 PARA 1.0 30 75.5 180
4 PARA 1.5 23 120 188
5 PARA 1.5 29 67.5 189
6 PARA 2.0 39 85 180
7 PARA 2.0 22 62.8 170
8 PARA 3.0 30 64 178
9 POLIO 3.0 40 74.4 170
10 AMP 4.0 43 96.6 180
11 AMP 4.5 31 78 180
12 AMP 4.5 28 61 180
13 AMP 4.5 22 87.4 188
14 AMP 4.5 31 113.2 200
M 30.1 80 181.4
SD 6.6 18.5 7.8

#### Table 2
Technical characteristics of Greek elite wheelchair basketball players

N Classification Lay up Free throws Long pass Pass for accuracy 20m sprint Obstacle dribble
1 1 11 19 25 10.5 5.8 55.4
2 1 9 18 19 10.4 5.7 57.4
3 1 6 23 15 10.4 6.1 55.3
4 1 6 13 20 9 6.3 58.9
5 1.5 10 26 21 8.7 7.0 56
6 2 12 27 11 13.6 5.7 56.8
7 2 10 19 17 12 5.1 49
M 9.14 20.71 18.28 10.66 5.96 55.54
SD 2.34 4.92 4.50 1.69 0.59 3.15
8 3 8 15 13 12.4 5.2 47.1
9 3 14 22 17 9.3 5.7 48.9
10 4 13 19 17 8.9 6.0 50.7
11 4.5 12 24 12 13.8 5.2 44.4
12 4.5 10 19 19 12.9 5.2 43.1
13 4.5 12 20 16 15.2 6.0 51
14 4.5 9 10 11 12.1 5.7 44.8
M 11.14 18.43 15 12.09 5.57 47.14
SD 2.19 4.65 3 2.28 0.37 3.16

#### Table 3
t-test results for the six skill tests within the group

test t p
Lay up -1.65 0.12
Free throws 0.89 0.39
Long pass 1.61 0.13
Pass for accuracy -1.32 0.21
Sprint 1.46 0.17
Obstacle dribble 4.98 0.0003

### Figures

#### Figure 1
20m speed run
![Figure 1](//thesportjournal.org/files/volume-15/462/figure-1.png “20m speed run”)

#### Figure 2
Free throws. 2 series of 20 shot
![Figure 2](//thesportjournal.org/files/volume-15/462/figure-2.png “Free throws. 2 series of 20 shot”)

#### Figure 3
Obstacle dribble
![Figure 3](//thesportjournal.org/files/volume-15/462/figure-3.png “Obstacle dribble”)

#### Figure 4
Lay-ups (2 min)
![Figure 4](//thesportjournal.org/files/volume-15/462/figure-4.png “Lay-ups (2 min)”)

#### Figure 5
Long pass (6 trials)
![Figure 5](//thesportjournal.org/files/volume-15/462/figure-5.png “Long pass (6 trials)”)

#### Figure 6
Pass for accuracy (10 trials)
![Figure 6](//thesportjournal.org/files/volume-15/462/figure-6.png “Pass for accuracy (10 trials)”)

### References

1. American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD) (1984). Basketball for boys and girls: skill test manual. VA Reston.
2. Apostolidis, N., Nassis, G., Bolatoglou, T., & Geladas, N. (2003). Physiological and technical characteristics of elite young basketball players. The Journal of Sport Medicine and Physical Fitness, 43, 157-163.
3. Brasile, F. (1984). A wheelchair basketball skill test. Sports and Spokes, 9(7), 36-40.
4. Brasile, F. (1986). Do you measure up? Sports and Spokes, 12(4), 43-47.
5. Brasile, F. (1990). Performance evaluation of wheelchair athletes: More than a disability classification level issue. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 7, 289-297.
6. Brasile, F. (1993). Evaluation the elite. Sports and Spokes,19(3), 52-55.
7. Brasile, F. (1996a). Wheelchair basketball skills proficiencies versus disability Classification. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 3, 6-13.
8. Brasile, F., & Hendrick, B. (1996b). The relationship of skills of elite wheelchair basketball competitors to the international functional classification system. The Recreate Journal, 30, 114-127.
9. Ergun, N., Duzgun, I., & Aslan, E. (2008). Effect of the number of years of experience on physical fitness, sports skills and quality of life in wheelchair basketball players. Fizyoterapi Rehabilitasyon, 19(2), 55-63.
10. Goosey-Tolfrey, V., Butterworth, D., & Morriss, C. (2002). Free throw shooting technique of male wheelchair basketball players. Physical Activity Quarterly, 19, 238-250.
11. Hopkins, D. R. (1979). Using skill tests to identify successful and unsuccessful basketball performers. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 50, 381-387.
12. Malone, L.A., Gervais, P.L., Steadward, R.D., & Sanders, R.H. (1999, July). Parameters of ball release in wheelchair basketball free throw shooting. Oral presentation at the XVII International Symposium on Biomechanics in Sports, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Western Australia.
13. Molik, B., Kosmol, A., Laskin, J.J., Morgulec-Adamowicz, N., Skucas, K., Dabrowska, A., Gajewski, J., & Ergun, N. (2010). Wheelchair basketball skill tests: differences between athletes’ functional classification level and disability type. Fizyoterapi Rehabilitasyon, 21(1), 11-9.
14. Vanlerberghe, J.O.C., & Slock, K. (1987). A study of wheelchair basketball skills. International Perspective of Adopted Physical Activity. Champaign Illinois: Human Kinetics.
15. Vanlandewijck, Y.C., Daly, D.J., & Theisen, D.M. (1999) Field test evaluation of aerobic, anaerobic, and wheelchair basketball skill performances. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 20, 548-54.

### Corresponding Author

N. Apostolidis, Phd
National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Faculty of Physical Education & Sport Science
Daphne – Athens, 17237 Greece
<napost@phed.uoa.gr>
+302107276085

Dr. E. Zacharakis is Lecturer to the Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Science of the Athens University. He is teaching Basketball techniques and tactics (Undergraduate). He was head coach of the Greek wheelchair basketball team, participated to the Olympic Games in Athens 2004. His research interest is focused on wheelchair basketball, concerning the technical and physiological characteristics.

2013-11-22T22:50:16-06:00April 9th, 2012|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off on Technical Abilities of Elite Wheelchair Basketball Players
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Work-Family Conflict and Related Theories in NCAA Division II Sports Information Professionals

Laura M. Hatfield, Ph.D. and Jeffrey T. Johnson, Ph.D.

### Abstract

Work-family conflict (WFC) is defined as “the discord that arises when the time devoted to or time spent fulfilling professional responsibilities interferes with or limits the amount of time available to perform family-related responsibilities” (20, 21). A successful career in sports information requires long, demanding hours which can make finding balance between work and family difficult. Sports information professionals (SIDs) participate in public relations activities designed to promote the teams they represent (19, 26). Responding to increasing interest in college sports, the demand for information about collegiate athletic departments has increased (13). In order to meet this demand for information, SIDs are responsible for producing content for electronic and print media on a regular and timely basis. The work done by sports information professionals has been characterized as 24 hours a day, 7 days a week work (11). Therefore, balancing work and home life has become a topic of increasing interest for those working in this field.

The purpose of this study was to determine if work-family conflict exists in NCAA Division II SIDs and to examine the impact of WFC on the related theories of life satisfaction (LS), job satisfaction (JS), job burnout (JB), and career commitment (CC). E-mails containing a link to the online survey were sent to the highest ranking sports information professional in each NCAA Division II institution. Informed consent was obtained prior to obtaining access to the survey. The survey contained Likert scale items for WFC, LS, JS, JB, and CC, demographic information, and open ended items relating to positive aspects and challenging aspects in performing the duties of a sports information professional. Of the 273 individuals contacted, 98 (36%) completed the survey. Results indicated these professionals do suffer from work-family conflict as 84% reported high levels of conflict, while only 8% reported low levels of conflict. Examination of the other scales revealed that these professionals are fairly satisfied with life and job factors, but some do experience from a fair degree of job burnout. Further analysis revealed that those with more children in the home had greater WFC. Finally, correlation and regression analyses revealed significant statistical relationships between each scale and indicated that WFC could successfully predict variations in LS, JS, JB, and CC.

**Key Words:** sports information, media relations, work family conflict

### Introduction

Work-family conflict (WFC) is defined as “the discord that arises when the time devoted to or time spent fulfilling professional responsibilities interferes with or limits the amount of time available to perform family-related responsibilities” (20, 21). This type of conflict appears when the demands of one’s professional life interfere with the demands of one’s personal life. Stated another way “participation in the work role/family role is made more difficult by virtue of participation in the family role/work role” (16). WFC has been studied extensively in the corporate environment (2, 9). This is a growing line of inquiry in the sport context and has received visible support from the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). For example, the NCAA has created a work-life task force to address these issues (10) and the topic has been prominent at [NCAA National Conventions](http://www.ncaa.org) beginning in 2008. Results from a recent study found that NCAA Division I sports information professionals do experience high levels of work-family conflict (14).

Sports information professionals (SIDs) participate in public relations activities designed to promote the teams they represent (19, 26). Responding to increasing interest in college sports, the demand for information about intercollegiate athletic departments has increased (13). In order to meet this demand for information, SIDs are responsible for producing content for electronic and print media on a regular and timely basis. They develop a wide range of publications and new media, compile and manage statistics, meet the needs of the media, manage budgets, organize events, and supervise personnel all while maintaining their composure in highly stressful situations (12, 26). SIDs report feeling overwhelmed with the increasing demands of desktop publishing and electronic media (16). A successful career in sports information requires long, demanding hours which can make finding balance between work and family difficult. Therefore, balancing work life and home life has become a topic of increasing interest for those working in this field, including SIDs at the NCAA Division II level.

In an attempt to define, brand, and uniquely position NCAA Division II, the NCAA launched a strategic initiative that incorporates a hexagon of principles (learning, balance, resourcefulness, sportsmanship, passion, and service) to clearly define and uniquely position [Division II](http://www.ncaa.org/wps/wcm/connect/82af4f004e0daa1e9b7ffb1ad6fc8b25/SPPlatformInColor.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&CACHEID=82af4f004e0daa1e9b7ffb1ad6fc8b25 ). In addition, the Division II presidents have established the first phase in a two phase process designed to promote more balance between work and life for coaches and student-athletes. The “Life in the Balance” principle reduces contest dates in 10 sports thus streamlining the seasons and includes a provision for a seven-day break from practice and competition for basketball. These actions are designed to provide time off for [players and team staffs](http://www.ncaa.org/wps/wcm/connect/public/ncaa/academics/division+ii/life+in+the+balance). It is reasonable to infer that this increased focus on a balanced life, including the streamlining of seasons and reduction in contests, would promote more opportunity for work-life balance for athletic department members, including sports information professionals.

The NCAA Division II strategic positioning initiative is designed to establish a way of life on the Division II campus as uniquely different from the way of life on campuses at other institutional classifications. Several studies exist that examine the job characteristics for athletic directors at the various institutional classifications. Previous research indicates that there are very few differences among the characteristics of the organizations and the styles of administration in NCAA (all levels) and NAIA athletic departments (25). Further, Copeland and Kirsch (4) found no significant differences in job stress for NCAA athletic directors regardless of institutional classification (Division I, Division II, or Division III). Additionally, these athletic directors reported that they almost always experienced some level of job related stress (4). Given the similar organizational characteristics and administrative styles, including the similarly stressful nature of the role of the athletic director in intercollegiate athletics, it is reasonable to infer that those with other roles within athletic departments at various institutional classifications might experience similar challenges to their colleagues across divisions. In fact, the stresses faced by SIDs in NCAA Division I might also be faced by those in NCAA Division II institutions. Hatfield & Johnson (14) reported that a majority of the NCAA Division I SID participants experienced work-family conflict.

Studies examining work-family conflict in sport have focused primarily on athletes, coaches, athletic trainers, and administrators at the NCAA Division I level (6, 7, 8, 14, 15, 17, 18, 22, and 24). Male and female coaches have experienced work-family conflict (24). Work-family conflict has been closely examined in NCAA Division I athletic trainers (17, 18). Results from these studies indentified long hours, required travel, overlapping responsibilities, drive to succeed, and commitment to the profession as qualities that contribute to the challenges sport professionals face in managing work-family conflict (6, 7, 8, 15, 17, 18, 22, 24). SIDs are another group of athletic department staff members who work in similarly demanding positions. In a study examining work-family conflict and related theories in sports information professionals, Hatfield & Johnson (14) found that 86% of participating SIDs reported experiencing work-family conflict. These professionals identified “balancing work and family life, especially on the weekends;” “balancing work/family life and prioritizing the things that must get done and putting others aside to spend time with family;” “meeting all the job demands with a small staff and meeting the demands at home as a husband and father of two young children;” and “balancing travel/events with family…more is always added, nothing is ever taken away” as some of their greatest challenges in performing their job duties (14).

Work-family conflict does not exist in isolation. Work-family conflict has been negatively related to life satisfaction and job satisfaction in athletic trainers and sports information professionals (14, 18). Work-family conflict has been positively correlated with job burnout and intent to leave the profession (14, 20). Work schedules that require long hours with little flexibility have been tied to job dissatisfaction and burnout in athletic department employees (14, 17). Further, in so much as time is a limited resource, time spent on one activity, work, is time not spent on another activity, family. Therefore, attempts to balance work and family while managing other, related constructs as experienced by SIDs warrants formal examination. The purpose of this study was to determine if work-family conflict exists in NCAA Division II sports information professionals and to examine the impact of work-family conflict on the related theories of life satisfaction (LS), job satisfaction (JS), job burnout (JB), and career commitment (CC).

### Methods

#### Participants

Sports information professionals in each of the 273 NCAA Division II member institutions were invited to participate, and 98 SIDs completed surveys. Participants in this study were the highest ranking sports information professionals in their respective NCAA Division II athletic departments. Titles for these professionals might include, but are not limited to, any of the following: sports information director, assistant athletic director for media relations, or associate athletic director for sport communications.

#### Procedures

There are 273 NCAA Division II institutions listed on the [NCAA portal](http://www.ncaa.org). The portal was used to provide access to the website for each Division II institution. Once on the website, the highest ranking communications professional in the athletic department was identified and an email inviting that individual to participate in the study was sent. A link to the survey was provided in the email. Informed consent was obtained prior to obtaining access to the survey. Following the initial invitation to participate, two additional reminders were sent. The survey was open for six weeks.

#### Instrumentation

An online survey was assembled to include five scales that had previously been tested for validity and reliability (12) and included a section for demographic information and open ended items to address the positive aspects and challenging aspects in performing the duties of a sports information professional. The following five scales were used:

*Work-Family Conflict.* Work-family conflict was assessed using the 5-item Netemeyer et al. (20) scale that included a 7-point Likert-type scale (1 = *strongly disagree* or *low work-family conflict* to 7 = *strongly agree* or *high work-family conflict*) for responses.

*Life Satisfaction.* Life satisfaction was assessed using the 5-item Diener (5) Satisfaction with Life Scale that included a 7-point Likert-type scale (1 = *strongly agree* or *high life satisfaction* to 7 = *strongly disagree* or *low life satisfaction*) for responses.

*Job Satisfaction.* Job satisfaction was assessed using the 6-item Agho, Price & Mueller (1) scale that included a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = *strongly agree* or *low job satisfaction* to 5 = *strongly disagree* or *high job satisfaction*) for responses.

*Job Burnout.* Job burnout was assessed using the 21-item Pines & Aronson (23) Burnout Measure that included a 7-point Likert-type scale (1 = *never* or *low job burnout* to 7 = *always* or *high job burnout*) for responses.

*Career Commitment.* Career commitment was assessed using the 7-item Blau (3) scale that included a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = *strongly agree* or *high career commitment* to 5 = *strongly disagree* or *low career commitment*) for responses.

#### Data Analysis

The quantitative data was calculated using SPSS version 16. Demographic data was collected for gender, age, EEOC status, educational background, number of children under the age of 18 living in the household, and number of years in the field. Each scale was totaled and percentages for the “agree” (agree, somewhat agree, strongly agree), “neutral”, and “disagree” (disagree, somewhat disagree, strongly disagree) responses were calculated for each scale. Cross-tabulations between demographic categories and the WFC scale were run to determine if any of these factors had an impact on WFC. Finally, correlation and regression analysis was run to examine the relationships between the scales and to determine the predictive ability of WFC on each of the other scales. Qualitative data from the open ended items were utilized to support the results from the quantitative analyses.

### Results & Discussion

Of the 273 Division II sports information professionals contacted, 98 responded to the survey, for a response rate of 36%. Within the group of respondents, 85% were male (n = 83) and 11 % were female (n = 11). Four individuals (4%) chose not to include their gender. With regard to family status, 32% were single (n = 31), 61% were married (n = 60), 1% was widowed (n = 1), 1% was divorced (n = 1), 1% was in a domestic partnership (n = 1), and 4% (n = 4) did not indicate a family status. Eighty six percent of the sample was Caucasian (n = 84), five percent were African American (n = 5), one percent was Hispanic (n = 1), two percent were of mixed heritage (n = 2), and six percent did not respond to EEOC status (n = 6). Most of the respondents were sports information directors (70%, n = 69), with a few indicating they were assistant or associate athletic directors (27%, n = 25). Four of the participants did not indicate a title (n = 4).

The results clearly show that Division II sports information professionals (SIDs) do experience levels of work-family conflict. Eighty four percent of the participants responded that they had high levels of work-family conflict while only eight percent indicated they did not feel their work conflicted with their personal lives. Responses from open-ended questions also support this finding including: “having to work seven days a week and having very little family time;” “trying to manage family time with work demands. More games are moving to weekends to avoid missed class time, but it doesn’t help staff members;” and “keeping an equal life-work balance through the entire year, not just in the summer months when there are no sports.”

With regard to the life satisfaction scale, 59% of the respondents indicated that they were happy with their current life situation, 28% indicated that they were not happy with their current life situation and another 13% responded neutral with regard to this set of questions. Even though over half of the participants did report that they are happy with their current life situation, the researchers were expecting this number to be higher as anecdotal evidence indicated that although these types of sport professionals do work long, demanding hours, the great percentage seemed to be happy with their lives. Therefore, the fact that almost 30% reported being somewhat unhappy further indicates there may be some work-life balance issues with this population. One respondent suggested that being “able to work flexible hours outside of events. Telecommute when possible. Go into the office after the kids are in bed” was a positive aspect of the job. Other responses included: “…involving my family in my work so I can accomplish my duties and spend time with family at the same time” and “nothing less than 100% is enough…my drive keeps me going and my family is heavily involved in the school in which I work which is good and bad.” These statements reinforce the crossover between these job and life characteristics.

Results related to the job satisfaction scale indicated that overall these professionals are satisfied with their present situation, as 80% responded that they were satisfied with their current jobs, while only nine percent reported being dissatisfied. This certainly indicates that while there are issues in this profession, the gross majority are pleased with their careers at this point in their professional lives. Respondents indicated that interacting with student-athletes and coaches, being a fan of one team, and the game-day atmosphere were positive aspects of their jobs.

Fifty five percent of the participants did not indicate high levels job burnout while 43% did indicate some level of burnout on a fairly frequent basis, according to results from the job burnout scale. Again, even though the majority of the participants do not report experiencing high levels of burnout, the fact that 43% do suffer from some level of burnout is an important finding and one indication that these individuals may experience more burnout as they progress through their professional careers as most of the participants were less than ten years into the profession. Some respondents provided work place examples related to burnout including the following: “Balancing what I physically, mentally and emotionally CAN do with what I WANT to do;” “too much work, not enough pay;” “no full-time help;” “limited staff (just me) covering 16 sports;” and “the ever changing and growing list of responsibilities.”

Results from the career commitment scale were interesting as 56% indicated that they were happy with their careers, while 41% had some level of uncertainty. This, again, further illustrates that most of these professionals do enjoy what they do although some may choose a different focus if they could “do it over again.” Positive comments related to career commitment included: “I love daily interaction with student-athletes, nothing beats the atmosphere of a college campus and the chance to make a difference in the lives of student-athletes” and “ability to develop working relationships with players and coaches. Ability to call the program ‘my own.’ Opportunity to tailor my work to the needs of my media market.” Others provided comments identifying challenges to their career commitment: “dealing with unrealistic objectives from superiors who have not the first clue what this job entails;” “I’m a one-man show. I currently do not have any full-time assistant[s] so I must complete all tasks;” and “managing expectations of administration in face of new technologies.”

To further disaggregate the data, cross-tabulations were run to determine if the responses on the work family scale were different based on gender, EEOC status, years of experience in the field, and number of children under age 18 in the home. When compared on gender, 100% of the female respondents indicated they did feel at least some degree of work-family conflict (see Table 1 for complete results). Results related to males showed 92.8% had some level of work-family conflict, while 1.2% was neutral and 6% indicated there was little or no work-family conflict. Comparison on EEOC status revealed similar results across the different categories as most felt a fair degree of work-family conflict and very few responses indicated little or no conflict (see Table 2 for complete results).

Data for years of experience as it relates to work-family conflict also showed very few differences across categories. Ninety three percent of those with ten or less years of experience indicated at least some level of conflict, compared to 96% of those with 11-20 years of experience, and 92% of those with over 20 years of experience (see Table 3 for complete results).

The most significant results of the cross-tabulations were associated with the number of children under the age of 18 in the home (see Table 4 for complete results). First, it was interesting to note that approximately 55% of the participants in the study reported having no children under the age of 18 living in the household. There could be several explanations for this result. Since many of these individuals are less than ten years into their careers they may not be at a point in their life where they want to start a family, but it may also indicate that their work schedules are interfering with the ability to start a family. Data from the cross-tabulation definitely showed differences based on the number children under age 18 in the household. Greater numbers of children in the household was associated with greater work-family conflict. Of those with three or more children, none indicated they were neutral or had little or no conflict, while 10.3% of those with two or less children under the age of 18 reported neutral or low rates of conflict.

Correlations were run to examine the degree of relationship between each of the scales. The correlations show significant relationships between each of the scales utilized in the study (see Table 5). Approximately half of the correlations were moderate (0.4 to 0.7) while the other half were low (0.2 to 0.4) but still all correlations were statistically significant at the 0.05 alpha level. These data clearly show there is a relationship between work-family conflict and each of the other scales, as well as, each of the other scales with each other.

After determining there were significant correlations between the scales, regression analyses were run between the work-family scale and each of the other scales to determine if work-family conflict could successfully predict the variations in the scores on the other scales (see Table 6 for complete results). The work-family conflict scale was able to predict each of the other scales effectively, indicating that work-family conflict is significantly related to life satisfaction, job burnout, career commitment, and job satisfaction for this group of Division II sports information professionals. Although work-family conflict was able to predict each of the other scales, the regression between work-family conflict and job burnout was substantially higher than the others, which indicates those experiencing from work-family conflict also seem to be experiencing a fair degree of job burnout.

The results of this study compare remarkably with a previous study by these authors investigating the same research questions with Division I sports information professionals (14). Eighty six percent of Division I SIDs reported having work-family conflict which compares favorably to the 84% reported in this study. All of the other scales had very similar results as well, certainly indicating that the stresses faced and the impact of these stressors on the lives of sports information professionals is very similar from Division I to Division II. The Division II SIDs did report slightly higher job burnout than their Division I counterparts (43% to 41%) which could be related to less staff and help, and additional responsibilities that may include coaching, other administrative responsibilities, etc., at the Division II level. The results from the correlation and regression data also mirrored the results from the Division I study.

### Conclusions

With increased coverage of Division II athletic events comes increased work for those providing information and promoting the athletes and teams to media outlets, fans, and other interested parties. As this demand for information increases, the potential for work-family conflict and related issues could certainly increase as well. The purpose of this study was to determine if work-family conflict exists in Division II SIDs, and if so, what is the relationship between work family conflict and life satisfaction, job satisfaction, career commitment, and job burnout? It is clear that Division II sports information professionals do experience work-family conflict, much like their Division I colleagues, and there is a significant relationship between these concepts. The correlation and regression analyses clearly show that work-family conflict can predict variations on each of the other scales. It is important for those in administrative positions to understand the demands on the SIDs and try to provide ways to reduce the impact of work-family conflict as it certainly could have potential negative results for the professionals.

### Application To Sport

Since SIDs serve as a liaison between collegiate athletic departments and media outlets, fans, and other interested parties, work-family conflict and job burnout could lead to increased stress among these professionals and could impact all entities associated with these athletic departments, including the athletes, other athletic administrators, and the university as a whole. This study has clearly demonstrated that these professionals do suffer from work-family conflict, and that WFC is related to increased job burnout and decreased life satisfaction, job satisfaction, and career commitment. Therefore, it is certainly plausible that this could lead to increased stress and negative impacts, therefore, it is important for athletic administrators to address this issue with their employees and try to find ways to decrease this conflict.

### Tables

#### Table 1
Cross-tabulation of work-family conflict by gender

Gender
Response Male Female
Strongly Disagree 0 0
Disagree 0 0
Somewhat Disagree 6.0 0
Neutral 1.2 0
Somewhat Agree 19.3 36.4
Agree 34.9 36.4
Strongly Agree 38.6 27.2

#### Table 2
Cross-tabulation of work-family conflict by EEOC

EEOC
Response Caucasian African-American Hispanic Mixed Heritage
Strongly Disagree 0 0 0 0
Disagree 0 0 0 0
Somewhat Disagree 3.6 20 0 0
Neutral 1.2 0 0 0
Somewhat Agree 23.8 0 0 0
Agree 35.7 20 100 50
Strongly Agree 35.7 60 0 50

#### Table 3
Cross-tabulation of work-family conflict by years of experience

Years of Experience
Response 0-10 years 11-20 years 21-30 years 31+ years
Strongly Disagree 0 0 0 0
Disagree 0 0 0 0
Somewhat Disagree 5.4 4 8.3 0
Neutral 1.8 0 0 0
Somewhat Agree 21.4 24 16.7 0
Agree 32.1 40 41.7 0
Strongly Agree 39.3 32 33.3 100

#### Table 4
Cross-tabulation of work-family conflict by number of children under age 18 in the home

Number of children under 18 in home
Response 0 1 2 3 4+
Strongly Disagree 0 0 0 0 0
Disagree 0 0 0 0 0
Somewhat Disagree 1.9 6.7 13.6 0 0
Neutral 3.8 0 0 0 0
Somewhat Agree 30.2 6.7 18.2 20 0
Agree 24.5 40 50 40 50
Strongly Agree 39.6 46.7 18.2 40 50

#### Table 5
Correlations (actual correlation coefficients) between subscales

Scales Work-family Conflict (WFC) Life Satisfaction (LS) Job Satisfaction (JS) Job Burnout (JB) Career Commitment (CC)
WFC 0.3962* 0.292* 0.485* 0.395*
LS 0.362* 0.418* 0.680* 0.471*
JS 0.292* 0.418* 0.405* 0.664*
JB 0.485* 0.680* 0.405* 0.315*
CC 0.395* 0.471* 0.664* 0.315*

* p < .05

#### Table 6
Regressions between WFC and each scale

Regression R squared F ratio P value
Work-family Conflict vs. Life Satisfaction 0.131 14.327 0.000
Work-family Conflict vs. Job Satisfaction 0.085 8.867 0.004
Work-family Conflict vs. Job Burnout 0.235 28.233 0.000
Work-family Conflict vs. Career Commitment 0.156 17.214 0.000

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26. Stoldt, G., Miller, L., & Comfort, P. (2001). Through the eyes of athletics directors: Perceptions of sports information directors, and other public relations issues. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 10(3), 164. Retrieved from SPORTDiscus database.

### Corresponding Author

Laura M. Hatfield, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor, Sport Management
University of West Georgia
Carrollton, GA 30118-1100
<lhatfiel@westga.edu>
678.839.6191

### Author Biographies

#### Laura M. Hatfield

Laura M. Hatfield (Ph.D., University of Southern Mississippi) is an assistant professor of sport management in the Department of Leadership and Applied Instruction at the University of West Georgia in Carrollton, GA. She teaches undergraduate courses organizational theory, organizational behavior, and communications. Her research interests include work-family conflict, organizational communication, and the scholarship of teaching.

#### Jeffrey T. Johnson

Jeffrey T. Johnson (Ph.D., Georgia State University) is an associate professor of sports science in the Department of Leadership and Applied Instruction at the University of West Georgia in Carrollton, GA. He teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in anatomy and physiology, biomechanics, and exercise physiology. His research interests include pathological walking and running, sport mechanics, and work-family conflict.

2013-11-22T22:50:34-06:00April 9th, 2012|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off on Work-Family Conflict and Related Theories in NCAA Division II Sports Information Professionals
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