Contemporary Sports Issues – Page 35

Experimental and Numerical Study of the Flow Past the Olympic Class K-1 Flat Water Racing Kayak at Steady Speed

Georgios D. Tzabiras, Stylianos P. Polyzos, Konstantina Sfakianaki, Vasilios Diafas, Athanasios D. Villiotis, Konstantinos Chrisikopoulos and Sokrates Kaloupsis

### Abstract

The present work is concerned with the study of the hydrodynamic performance of an Olympic class “K-1” flat water racing Kayak. The evaluation of the hydrodynamic resistance of the vessel is of major importance since it is directly related to the human power required to sustain a specific speed. In this respect, experiments in calm water and regular waves were conducted at various speeds past the particular boat at the towing tank of the Laboratory for Ship and Marine Hydrodynamics (LSMH) of the National Technical University of Athens (NTUA). The calm water tests were performed in the range of speeds from 0.25 to 5m/s and useful conclusions were drawn concerning the influence of the wave formation on the non-dimensional resistance coefficients. Experiments in regular waves were carried out for two characteristic speeds and showed an increase of the hydrodynamic resistance of about 11%. Furthermore, systematic numerical tests using advanced computer codes developed at LSMHE have been performed in order to investigate whether Computational Fluid Dynamics (C_FD) tools can be applied with confidence for predicting the calm water resistance of similar vessels. The scope of this part of the investigation is related to a rapid and cost-effective optimization of the shape of the boat. The computed results for the total resistance were in satisfactory agreement with the measurements, thus forming a basis for further investigation and deeper understanding of the athlete-boat interaction, especially for high performance and competition boats.

Under this study, every coach may form the way his athlete paddles, taking into consideration the hydrodynamic resistance during a canoe – kayak race with or without head waves. Additionally, this investigation is important for the canoe – kayak boat manufacturers since they can improve the boat shapes using existing C_FD tools and taking into account the resistance increase due to waves.

**Key words:** racing-kayak, resistance, experiments, potential, RANS

### Introduction

The scope of the present work is to investigate the hydrodynamic behavior of an Olympic class K-1 Flat Water Racing Kayak boat at steady forward speed. In a first approximation, the complicated roll and yaw motion of the boat caused by the rower is simplified by regarding only the forward component including free heave and trim. The athlete is in any case replaced by a constant weight about his/her mean centre of gravity. The study includes both experimental and numerical tests. Basically, the aim of the experimental program was to measure the total resistance of the Kayak, covering a speed range of 0.25 to 5.15 m/s, at the towing tank of the Laboratory for Ship and Marine Hydrodynamics (LSMH) of the National Technical University of Athens (NTUA). The tests took place during the last week of January 2009. First, experiments were carried out in calm water at various speeds. Similar tests have also been performed by towing tanks past other types of vessels, e.g. (3). Next, the particular boat was tested at two characteristic speeds in low regular waves which were produced by the wave generator of the tank. These tests were made in order to assess the increase of the hydrodynamic resistance and the corresponding power which is required to sustain the particular speeds.

On the other hand, the dramatic development of Computational Fluid Dynamics (C_FD) provides a valuable alternative for evaluating the hydrodynamic behavior of floating bodies. Many research groups have developed advanced computer codes which numerically solve the flow field around complicated geometries. So far, most of the applications are concerned with flows about ships and try to overcome the problem of extrapolating the towing tank measurements to full scale. However, this is not the case in the particular study because the real vessel is tested in the towing tank and, therefore, the experiments predict accurately its hydrodynamic behavior. The main reason for performing C_FD tests is to evaluate the codes that have been developed at the LSMH in order to use them in a future optimization procedure regarding the shape of the boat. The application of reliable C_FD tools requires substantially less cost than constructing various models and testing them in a towing tank, since the most favorable shapes can be detected numerically and then a limited number of experiments has to be carried out. In the present investigation two methods have been examined to calculate the boat resistance at steady forward speed; a non-linear potential flow solver as well as a Reynold’s Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) solver. Both of them are applied for the first time past the Kayak boat and useful conclusions are drawn.

### Methods

#### Experimental Procedures

All the experiments were performed in the towing tank of the LMSH. The dimensions of the towing tank are 91 m (effective length), 4.56 m (width), and 3.00 m (depth). The towing tank is equipped with a running carriage that can achieve a maximum speed of 5.2 m/s. The tank is also equipped with a wave generating paddle (wave maker), located at one end of the flume. At the opposite end there is a properly shaped inclined shore, for the absorption of the waves. The wave making facilities can produce both harmonic and pseudorandom waves, in the frequency range from 0.3 to 1.4 Hz. The corresponding significant wave height can reach the level of 25 cm.

The hull provided by Pan-Hellenic Kayak and Canoe Trainers Association (PA.SY.P.K-C) was an Olympic class flat water racing Kayak, K-1 category, which refers to a single-seat boat, having the athlete paddling in a seated position. The weight category of the boat is M (medium), corresponding to an athlete’s weight in the range of 70 to 80 kg.

Minor alterations on the internal structure of the model were applied prior to the measurements, in order to accommodate the measuring equipment. This work was supervised by the personnel of PA.SY.P.K-C.

Both experimental and numerical tests were carried out with the boat having a displacement of Δ=86.8 kg (condition A). This is the sum of the bare hull weight with the added fixtures (11.8 kg) and the mean athlete’s weight, the last taken as 75 kg for the present study. The longitudinal position of the center of gravity (LCG) was chosen at the middle of the athlete’s seat. For the experiments, the rod of the resistance dynamometer was mounted on the hull at this location. The mounting was done using a heave rod – pitch bearing assembly, which allows for the vertical motions and trim angles (heave and pitch responses) of the boat.

The resistance measurements were performed for speeds in the range from 0.25 to 5.15 m/s, for the case of calm water and for two speeds (2.5 and 5.0 m/s) for the case of harmonic waves, (5). All the tests were performed in fresh water, at a temperature of 15 oC.

The boat resistance, the rise of the center of gravity (c.g.), the dynamic trim and the towing speed of the model were recorded during the runs on calm water. In this investigation, trim is defined as the signed rotation about the transverse axis passing through the c.g. and is considered positive when the bow of the kayak sinks. In addition, for the case of harmonic waves, the wave elevation was measured using wave probes.

#### Data Analysis

In order to investigate whether C_FD tools can be applied with confidence to predict the calm water resistance of similar vessels under the scope of hull optimization, systematic numerical tests were carried out by applying the non-linear potential flow solver (7,8), as well as the RANS solver (6,8), both developed at LSMH.

The potential method is based on constant source quadrilateral panels that cover the wetted surface of the boat and the real free-surface (Figure 1). The latter is found by an iterative procedure which, after convergence, leads to the satisfaction of both the well known free surface conditions: the kinematic and the dynamic. The potential flow predicts the wave making component C_W, whereas the total resistance coefficient C_T is calculated by adding the corresponding 1957 International Towing Tank Conference (ITTC’57) value for the skin friction coefficient C_F.

![Quadrilateral panels on the hull and water surface for the potential calculations.](/files/volume-13-number-4/1/figure-1.jpg “Quadrilateral panels on the hull and water surface for the potential calculations.”)
**Figure 1** Quadrilateral panels on the hull and water surface for the potential calculations.

Naturally, this procedure suffers from the potential flow drawbacks, i.e. the predicted wave pattern near and after the stern does not include any viscous effects. Besides, the so called form-resistance component including the skin friction alteration due to the shape of the hull and the viscous pressure component cannot be taken into account. These shortcomings disappear when the RANS equations are solved numerically. The latter, however, requires substantially higher computing power and time since a three-dimensional grid discretisation is required, Figure 2.

The employed method uses an H-O type numerical grid which is adjusted to the free-surface as the solution proceeds (6). To account for turbulence effects, the well known k-ε model with wall functions (2) is adopted.

![Numerical H-O type grid for the RANS calculations.](/files/volume-13-number-4/1/figure-2.jpg “Numerical H-O type grid for the RANS calculations.”)
**Figure 2** Numerical H-O type grid for the RANS calculations.

### Results

#### Calm water experiments

Calm water resistance tests were done for the speed range of 0.25 to 5.15 m/s. The experimental results concerning the calm water resistance, the CG rise, the dynamic trim and the towing speed of the kayak are presented in Table 1. The corresponding graphs for the resistance, dynamic trim and CG rise are presented in Figs. 3 to 5, respectively.

As observed in Fig. 4, the dynamic trim is negligible in the range of speeds 0-2.5 m/s while it increases rapidly after it, resulting in an increase of the draft at the stern and a raise of the bow. The CG –rise, Fig. 5, is always negative resulting in an increase of the mean vessel’s draft which presents a peak about the speed of 3.5 m/s. This behavior could be associated with the dynamic trim change and shows that the behavior of the boat is very sensitive with respect to the speed.

![Total Resistance](/files/volume-13-number-4/1/figure-3.gif “Total Resistance”)
**Figure 3** Total Resistance

![Dynamic Trim](/files/volume-13-number-4/1/figure-4.gif “Dynamic Trim”)
**Figure 4** Dynamic Trim

![C.G. Rise](/files/volume-13-number-4/1/figure-5.gif “C.G. Rise”)
**Figure 5** C.G. Rise

In order to study the usual Froude decomposition of the total resistance coefficient versus speed, the relation between the total resistance coefficient (CT) and the Froude number (Fn) is, firstly, depicted in Figure 6. These parameters are defined by the following relations:

![Formula 1](/files/volume-13-number-4/1/formula-1.gif)

![Formula 2](/files/volume-13-number-4/1/formula-2.gif)

where V_S stands for the speed, g is the gravitational acceleration, L the waterline length, R_T the total resistance, ρ the water density and WS the wetted surface.

In the calculation of the total resistance coefficient, the wetted surface used was the one calculated by means of the potential method. The variation total resistance coefficient vs. Fn, presented in Fig.6, shows that it is influenced strongly by the wave formation. The main hump is located in the region of Fn 0.4÷0.45, i.e. it is moved to the left with respect to the predicted one by the linear wave theory (about 0.5) (4). However, the prismatic hump is missing while a “hollow” appears about Fn=0.3 which is moved to the right with respect to the predicted one by the linear wave theory (about 0.24), while the higher values at the low Fn show a dominant effect of skin friction.

![Total resistance coefficient.](/files/volume-13-number-4/1/figure-6.gif “Total resistance coefficient.”)
**Figure 6** Total resistance coefficient.

According to the standard Froude approach, the total resistance coefficient can be decomposed into the friction (CF) and the residual (CR) components as:

![Formula 3](/files/volume-13-number-4/1/formula-3.gif)

The friction coefficient (CF) can be calculated by the ITTC’57 formula as:

![Formula 4](/files/volume-13-number-4/1/formula-4.gif)

where

![Formula 5](/files/volume-13-number-4/1/formula-5.gif)

represents the corresponding Reynolds number, L is the immersed waterline length and ν the kinematic viscosity.

Furthermore, the residual resistance may be regarded as equal to the so-called wave-making resistance CW, i.e. CR ≈ CW. The three coefficients with respect to the Froude number are presented in Table 2. The negative or very low values of CR at the lower Froude numbers show that the skin friction formula rather over-predicts CF and, therefore, an extended laminar region may cover the front part of the vessel. It should be noted here that no turbulence stimulators were applied since the real hull was tested. The slender form of this hull should result in a thin boundary layer region over the major part of the wetted surface, thus permitting the existence of a laminar zone especially at low speeds, which in any case is favorable because it leads to a reduction of the total resistance.

The residual resistance coefficient, plotted vs. Fn in Fig. 7, shows similar trends with Fig. 6 and influences accordingly the total coefficient. CR is comparable to CF after Fn=0.3, but in any case is lower than that, implying that skin friction plays an important role for the total resistance. This trend is due to the very slender form of the particular boat which was designed to produce low waves, as far as possible.

![Wave, Pressure and Residual resistance coefficients.](/files/volume-13-number-4/1/figure-7.gif “Wave, Pressure and Residual resistance coefficients.”)
**Figure 7** Wave, Pressure and Residual resistance coefficients.

#### Potential results

In order to validate the use of the non-linear potential solver (7) for the examined type of vessel, systematic numerical tests were conducted for the same speed range as the experiments.

The solver has been developed at the LSMH and solves the wave problem by covering the hull and the free-surface with quadrilateral panels. The hull geometry is represented by the conformal mapping approach which exhibits the advantage of a fast and effective reconstruction of panels as the free-surface changes. A special feature of the code is the calculation of the free-surface by combining an integral with a differential method. The total number of panels used was 12,000 while the trim angle as well as the dynamic rise of the c.g., were calculated numerically. The potential results of the examined cases are shown in Table 3. Essentially the method predicts only the wave resistance component CW, while CF is derived under the ITTC’57 skin friction approximation. The predicted CW is compared to the measured one in Fig. 7. Evidently it exhibits the same variations, but it is lower than the experimental in the whole range of Fn. This is an expected behavior according to the aforementioned shortcomings. The potential theory predicts higher waves at the stern region, resulting in increased pressures underneath the stern that in turn lead to a reduction of the total wave resistance. However, the total resistance coefficient appears closer to the experimental in Fig. 6 where the skin friction was added. This is reflected also to the calculation of the total resistance (which is the meaningful quantity) in Fig. 3, where the calculated results are in satisfactory agreement with the measurements up to the speed of 3.5 m/s (~7%) while deviations increase at higher speeds.

#### RANS results

In order to explore the possibility of obtaining better results at high speeds with RANS computations, three test cases were examined, corresponding to the speeds of 3, 4 and 5m/s. The relevant code has also been developed at the LSMH and, unlike other methods, uses the concept of orthogonal curvilinear co-ordinates to solve the viscous flow equations. This feature is beneficial for obtaining effectively converged solutions. The free-surface is calculated iteratively by applying a surface-tracking method that has been developed for the first time in (6).

In any case the grid size had 2.65 million grid points. To reduce the computation cost as well as the uncertainties related with the longitudinal position of the center of gravity, the trim angle of the vessel was taken from the experiments while it was assumed free to heave. The results acquired via the RANS solver are shown in Table 4. First, it is important to notice that the calculated skin friction coefficient CF is in very good agreement with the empirical ITTC’57 formula in Table 2, which justifies the relevant assumption when the potential method is adopted. The calculated values of the total resistance coefficients are presented in Table 4. Evidently, the total resistance is predicted with satisfactory agreement with respect to the experimental values for the examined speeds. The larger deviation at the highest speed may be a result of the extended wave breaking which was observed during the experiments in this case, which cannot be simulated numerically. The deviations percent of the calculated vs. the experimental total resistance is depicted in Table 5 for both methods, where the superiority of the RANS approach is obvious at high speeds.

The calculated wave patterns about the boat by the RANS computations are plotted in Figs. 8 to 10 for the speeds of 3.0 m/s, 4.0 m/s and 5.0 m/s, respectively. The full lines represent wave crests while the dashed lines correspond to wave troughs. These plots show a regular formation which is similar to the real one observed during the experiments.

![Water surface elevation contour, RANS solver, VS =2.995 m/s.](/files/volume-13-number-4/1/figure-8.jpg “Water surface elevation contour, RANS solver, VS =2.995 m/s.”)
**Figure 8** Water surface elevation contour, RANS solver, VS =2.995 m/s.

(Full lines: wave crests, dashed lines: wave troughs)

![Water surface elevation contour, RANS solver, VS =3.989 m/s.](/files/volume-13-number-4/1/figure-9.jpg “Water surface elevation contour, RANS solver, VS =3.989 m/s.”)
**Figure 9** Water surface elevation contour, RANS solver, VS =3.989 m/s.

(Full lines: wave crests, dashed lines: wave troughs)

![Water surface elevation contour, RANS solver, VS=5.153 m/s.](/files/volume-13-number-4/1/figure-10.jpg “Water surface elevation contour, RANS solver, VS=5.153 m/s.”)
**Figure 10** Water surface elevation contour, RANS solver, VS=5.153 m/s.

(Full lines: wave crests, dashed lines: wave troughs)

#### Experimental tests in regular waves

The tests in regular waves were done at the speed of 2.5 m/s for wave frequencies of 0.3 Hz, 0.5 Hz, 0.7 Hz, and 0.9 Hz and at the speed of 5.0 m/s for wave frequencies of 0.3 Hz and 0.5 Hz (5).

During the tests, the following responses were measured:

– C.G. rise
– Pitch
– Added resistance
– Wave Height

The experimental results for these tests are presented in Table 6. Based on the recorded time histories of the boat responses, the Response Amplitude Operators (RAOs) in heave (at the CG position) and in pitch motion were calculated and presented also in this Table, together with the measured values of wave amplitude and mean added resistance.

The non-dimensional RAO values were calculated using the following formulae:

– RAOHEAVE = ξ0 / ζ0
– RAOPITCH = θ / (k ξ0)

Where:

– ξ0 : heave response amplitude
– ζ0 : wave amplitude
– θ : pitch amplitude [rad]
– k : wave number (k=2π/λ)
– λ : wave length

The most important result is the resistance increase presented in the last column of Table 6. It can be concluded that the added resistance is negligible for wave lengths much larger than the boat length (low frequency range, examined frequency 0.3 Hz) and can reach values from 7 to 12% for faster waves (examined frequencies 0.5, 0.7, and 0.9 Hz) and for both wave heights. This resistance increase reflects directly on the power required by the athlete.

### Discussion

The measured total resistance coefficient shows a minimum about the vessel speed of 1.5m/s and a maximum at 3.0 m/s. These values appear as a result of the interactions of the generated wave systems about the boat. In addition, the Froude decomposition of the total resistance coefficient demonstrates that skin friction is higher than the residuary component at all speeds, while at low speeds the appearance of laminar flow regions about the bow is rather possible. Wave breaking was also observed at speeds above 3.5 m/s.

The performance of the boat subjected to low amplitude heading harmonic waves was also investigated. The main conclusion is that short waves (high frequencies) may increase the boat resistance and, therefore, the required human power by almost 10%.

The applications of the employed CFD approaches have shown that the computation of the total resistance by applying a non-linear potential flow code in conjunction with the ITTC’57 skin friction formula is in good agreement with the measured one for speeds up to 3.5 m/s. Above this level, viscous effects are dominant and RANS methods have to be employed to obtain accurate results. However, in the usual range of speeds of the particular vessel, the potential approach may produce reliable results and, therefore, can be involved in optimization procedures concerning the hull geometry.

The current investigation has been based on the fruitful collaboration of three research groups, i.e. the Laboratory for Ship and Marine hydrodynamics of NTUA, the Pan-Hellenic Canoe – Kayak Trainers Association, and the Department of Physical Education and Sport Science of the University of Athens. The groups combined their efforts for the first time, and the data acquired can form a basis for further investigation and deeper understanding of the athlete-boat interaction, especially for high performance and high competitive boats, like the case at hand. The research will be continued toward the hull optimization of the boat as well as the experimental study of the effect of the yaw and roll motions by designing the proper experimental apparatus. The numerical tools will be further developed to simulate these motions as well as to take into account the unsteady influence of waves.

### Conclusions

The systematic numerical experiments have shown that both potential and RANS methods can be applied in order to calculate the calm water resistance of a flat water racing kayak. The potential solver provided results in good qualitative agreement with the experiments and, therefore, can be involved in optimization procedures concerning the hull geometry. The RANS solver gave very accurate predictions for the total resistance and therefore can be used with confidence for predicting the resistance of vessels of similar geometry.

### Applications in Sport

In the last several years we have seen a tremendous rise in new technologies (construction materials, e.g. carbon fiber) (1) which in their way affect the increasing improvement of results in canoe – kayak. The main factor for the accomplishment of better times in canoeing is the hydrodynamic resistance of the boat’s hull. With this study, every coach may develop the way his athlete paddles, taking into consideration the hydrodynamic resistance which is observed depending on the waves appearing during a canoe – kayak race.

Additionally, this study is very important for the canoe – kayak boat manufacturers, since they can achieve the making of more improved boat hulls, taking into account the hydrodynamic resistance appearing under different types of waves.

### Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank the personnel of LSMH and particularly Mr. I. Trachanas who has carried out the measurements in the Towing Tank as well as Mr. D. Triperinas, Ms. D. Damala and Mr. G Katsaounis for designing the experiments and interpreting the results.

The authors would also like to thank Lloyd’s Register Educational Trust (LRET), since Mr. Polyzos’ Phd studies are supported by LRET.

The Lloyd’s Register Educational Trust (LRET) is an independent charity working to achieve advances in transportation, science, engineering and technology education, training and research worldwide for the benefit of all.

### Tables

#### Table 1
Experimental results for the calm water resistance tests, condition: Δ=86.8 Κp.

Speed	Froude Number	Total Resistance (R_r)	Dynamic Trim (+) by bow, (-) by stern	C.G. Rise
m/s		Kp	deg	em
0.244	0.035	0.011	-0.029	-0.063
0.499	0.071	0.078	-0.025	-0.163
1.003	0.142	0.311	-0.007	-0.027
1.502	0.213	0.669	0.007	-0.122
2.005	0.284	1.179	0.002	-0.317
2.500	0.354	1.896	-0.043	-0.629
2.995	0.425	2.854	-0.361	-1.163
3.493	0.495	3.963	-0.628	-1.362
3.989	0.565	5.085	-0.799	-1.195
4.494	0.637	6.318	-0.866	-0.846
5.153	0.730	7.902	-0.947	-0.602

#### Table 2
Experimental results for the calm water resistance tests.

Speed	Froude Number	Total Resistance (R_r)	Total Resistance Coefficient (C_F)	Frictional Resistance Coefficient (C_T)	Residual Resistance Coefficient
m/s		Nt		(ITTC’57)	(C_R)
0.244	0.035	0.105	2.226E-03	4.606>-03	-2.380E-03
0.499	0.071	0.761	3.889E-03	3.971E-03	-8.194E-05
1.003	0.142	3.054	3.827E-03	3.470E-03	3.568E-04
1.502	0.213	6.556	3.644E-03	3.222E-03	4.216E-04
2.005	0.284	11.558	3.561E-03	3.061E-03	4.997E-04
2.500	0.354	18.588	3.651E-03	2.946E-03	7.050E-04
2.995	0.425	27.988	3.776E-03	2.856E-03	9.200E-04
3.493	0.495	38.862	3.872E-03	2.783E-03	1.089E-03
3.989	0.565	49.867	3.815E-03	2.722E-03	1.093E-03
4.494	0.637	61.952	3.710E-03	2.670E-03	1.040E-03
5.153	0.730	77.487	3.488E-03	2.611E-03	8.770E-04

#### Table 3
Numerical results for the calm water resistance tests, potential method.

Speed	Froude Number	Dynamic Trim (+) by bow, (-) by stern	C.G. Rise	Wave Resistance Coefficient (C_W)	Frictional Resistance Coefficient (C_F) (ITTC’57)	Total Resistance Coefficient (C_T)	Total Resistance (R_T)
m/s		deg	cm				Nt
0.244	0.035	-0.001	0.036	3.743E-04	4.606E-03	4.980E-03	0.235
0.499	0.071	0.001	0.022	1.305E-04	3.971E-03	4.102E-03	0.802
1.003	0.142	0.008	-0.008	6.468E-05	3.470E-03	3.535E-03	2.921
1.502	0.213	0.014	-0.112	1.079E-04	3.222E-03	3.330E-03	5.991
2.005	0.284	-0.032	-0.285	4.473E-04	3.061E-03	3.508E-03	11.388
2.500	0.354	-0.072	-0.462	4.288E-04	2.946E-03	3.375E-03	17.182
2.995	0.425	-0.352	-0.808	8.456E-04	2.856E-03	3.702E-03	27.437
3.493	0.495	-0.528	-0.761	8.367E-04	2.783E-03	3.620E-03	36.330
3.989	0.565	-0.665	-0.739	7.948E-04	2.722E-03	3.517E-03	45.974
4.494	0.637	-0.709	-0.626	6.733E-04	2.670E-03	3.343E-03	55.825
5.153	0.730	-0.828	-0.597	5.797E-04	2.611E-03	3.190E-03	70.881

#### Table 4
Numerical results for the calm water resistance tests, RANS method.

Speed	Froude Number	Pressure Resistance Coefficient (C_P)	Frictional Resistance Roefficient (C_F)	Total Resistance Coefficient (C_T)	Total Resistance (R_T)
m/s					Nt
2.995	0.425	9.001E-04	2.852E-03	3.752E-03	28.118
3.989	0.565	1.076E-03	2.717E-03	3.792E-03	50.266
5.153	0.730	7.825E-04	2.594E-03	3.376E-03	75.084

#### Table 5
Experimental results for the calm water resistance tests.

Speed	Froude Number	Deviation in Total Resistance δR_T (%)
m/s		Potential	RANS
0.244	0.035	-123.76
0.499	0.071	-5.46
1.003	0.142	7.63
1.502	0.213	8.61
2.005	0.284	1.47
2.500	0.354	7.56
2.995	0.425	1.97	-0.46
3.493	0.495	6.52
3.989	0.565	7.81	-0.80
4.494	0.637	9.89
5.153	0.730	8.52	3.10

#### Table 6
Experimental results for the tests in regular waves.

Speed	Wave Frequency	Wave Amplitude	RAO Heave	RAO Pitch	Added Resistance	Resistance Increase
m/s	Hz	cm			Kp	%
2.5	0.3	5.9	0.936	1.111	0.016	0.8
2.5	0.5	5.3	0.565	0.598	0.157	8.3
2.5	0.7	5.3	0.139	0.053	0.132	7.0
2.5	0.9	4.8	0.042	0.018	0.221	11.7
5.0	0.3	5.8	1.045	1.164	0.139	1.9
5.0	0.5	5.2	1.000	0.780	0.873	11.6

### References

Diafas, V. (2007). The sport of Canoe-Kayak and its Olympic categories: vol.1Flatwater Canoe-Kayak, University of Athens

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Tzabiras, G. D. (2004). Resistance and Self-propulsion simulations for a Series-60, CB=0.6 hull at model and full scale. Ship Technology Research, 51, 21-34.

Tzabiras, G. D. (2008). A method for predicting the influence of an additive bulb on ship resistance. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Hydrodynamics, 53-60.

Tzabiras, G. D., Kontogiannis, K. (2010). An integrated method for predicting the hydrodynamic resistance of low-Cb ships. Computer-Aided Design Journal, Accepted for publication.

### Corresponding Author
Mr. Stylianos Polyzos
Laboratory for Ship and Marine Hydrodynamics
9 Heroon Polytechniou str. NTUA Campus, Zografos 15773, Greece
<spolyzos@mail.ntua.gr>
0030-2107721104

### Author Bios

George Tzabiras is a Professor and Head of the Laboratory for Ship and Marine Hydrodynamics at the National Technical University of Athens (NTUA).

Stylianos Polyzos and Konstantina Sfakianaki are Phd Candidates at the Laboratory for Ship and Marine Hydrodynamics.

Athanasios D. Villiotis and Konstantinos Chrisikopoulos are members of the Pan-Hellenic Canoe – Kayak Trainers Association

Vassilios Diafas and Sokratis Kaloupsis are Professors at the University of Athens, Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, Faculty of water sports

U.S. Sports Academy2015-11-08T07:40:30-06:00October 4th, 2010|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Management|Comments Off

The price of NFL fandom: An exploratory study of the past, present, and future purchasing power of NFL fans

Jeffrey J. Fountain, Nova Southeastern University; Peter S. Finley, Nova Southeastern University

### Abstract

Concerns regarding gentrification of sports and the loss of middle-income fans have increased throughout the years, as ticket prices have continued to increase well beyond the rate of inflation for professional sports. This research focused on the changes in purchasing power for fans wishing to attend live games in the National Football League from 1991 to 2009 and then made subsequent forecasts for purchasing power 10 years into the future, should current pricing trends continue unabated. The Fan Cost Index (FCI) was utilized to compare purchasing power over time. Results showed that average FCI price for the league increased by 75% beyond inflation from 1991 to 2009. Purchasing power for fans from all the teams in the study diminished in some fashion from 1991 to 2009. However, eight of the 24 teams in the study severely reduced fan purchasing power, including a 50% or more reduction in the number of tickets alone. If pricing trends continue, the league could experience decreased attendance, particularly from fans in the lower income brackets.

**Key words:** purchasing power, FCI, gentrification, NFL, ticket prices
(more…)

U.S. Sports Academy2017-08-03T10:21:27-05:00October 4th, 2010|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Facilities, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Relationship of Arm Span to the Effects of Prefatigue on Performance in the Bench Press

David M. Bellar, Department of Kinesiology, University of Louisiana Lafayette, Lafayette LA; Lawrence W. Judge, School of Physical Education, Sport and Exercise Science, Ball State University, Muncie, IN; Tiffany J. Patrick, Department of Kinesiology, University of Louisiana Lafayette, Lafayette LA; Erin L. Gilreath, School of Physical Education, Sport and Exercise Science, Ball State University, Muncie, IN

### Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of arm span on the acute effects of fatigue caused by maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) on performance in the bench press. Eight female collegiate track and field athletes involved in the throws events (shot put, discus, hammer, and javelin) volunteered for this investigation. Initial assessments included one-repetition maximums in the bench press (Pre Max 59.5±19.8kg) for each volunteer as well as basic anthropometric data including arm span. Volunteers reported twice for two treatments that included three maximal bench press attempts. The standard (STAND) treatment consisted only of the maximal attempts. The MVIC treatment consisted of a 30-second maximal voluntary isometric contraction prior to maximal attempts. General Linear Model analysis was performed to evaluate fixed effects (Treatment, Arm span) on maximum weight lifted. The model was significant (Likelihood Ratio Chi-Square 3507.525, p<0.001) and revealed main effects for treatment (STAND 59.78±18.8kg vs. MVIC 52.32±11.5kg, p<0.001) and arm span (p<0.001), as well as a significant two-way interaction treatment*arm span (p<0.001). Post-Hoc analysis revealed that under the STAND treatment arm span was not a predictor of change in bench press performance; however under the MVIC treatment (F=16.255, p=0.007) arm span was a significant negative predictor of change in bench press performance (Beta = -0.855, p<0.001). Arm span is a simple measure that can quickly and easily be assessed; yet also a variable that can provide valuable information for coaches to consider before planning weight training for track and field throws athletes.

**Key Words:** Anthropometry, Strength, Athlete

### Introduction
Muscular strength is one essential component contributing to optimal athletic performance (4). The development of upper body strength typically involves high-resistance, low-repetition exercises using larger muscle masses to increase the maximal force generation by a muscle or muscle group. The ability of individuals to adapt positively to increasing training loads requires careful consideration of the volume and intensity of the exercises (1). Regardless of precise planning by the coach, an athlete’s physical limitations may prevent optimal adaptation, or physical gifts may instead promote adaptation (4).

A plethora of anecdotal evidence surrounds the effects of the length of the appendages of the human body on performance in the weight room. In particular in the bench press lift, many recreational lifters maintain that long arm length is detrimental to performance. The fact that lifters with longer arms must displace the bar further from the chest in order to complete the lift would seem to lend some credence to this anecdotal belief. However, recent work by Mayhew et al. (5) demonstrated that skeletal length was not a valid predictor for performance on the NFL-225 bench repetition test. In more recent work, Reynolds et al. (7) examined the relationship between more basic anthropometric measurements and performance in the bench press. In this study, Reynolds et al. recruited seventy subjects, 34 men and 36 women ranging in age from 18-69, and found that no anthropometric measurements were significant predictors on one repetition maximum (1-RM) performance.

Although previous results have not demonstrated a relationship between anthropometric measurements and 1-RM strength, results supporting differences in strength based on skeletal position have been witnessed. Murphy et al. (6) reported a significant correlation between isometric strength at 90 degrees of elbow flexion and 1-RM in the bench press exercise. Interestingly, the participants in this study demonstrated greater isometric strength at 120 degrees of elbow flexion, but this was not related to 1-RM strength. This angle (90 degrees) coincides to the ‘sticking point,’ the point of lowest force production, in the lift (3). It is intuitive that 1-RM strength in the bench press should correlate to the angle of lowest isometric force production. To complete a successful attempt, a lifter must move the weight through the ‘sticking point’ in order to achieve the elbow angle of 120 degrees, a point of greater isometric force production, and from there, finish the lift (3). Lifters who have longer arm spans will thus have a greater total distance to push the bar in order to reach the 120 degrees angle of elbow flexion. Thus, longer arm length could potentially be disadvantageous in the bench press lift.

Although previous research has not demonstrated this disadvantage (5), the Mayhew et al. investigation was descriptive in nature, predicting performance in one predetermined maximal set to failure. Past research evaluating the relationship between arm length and bench press strength has ignored how arm length may affect a total workout. Studies accounting for the potential effects of arm length during fatigue on the bench press are missing from the body of research. It is possible that effects of arm length do not manifest until the lifter is in a fatigued state. Thus, the purpose of the present investigation is to examine, in a very practical way, the effects of arm length on performance in the bench press while fatigued.

### Methods

#### Participants

The present investigation was presented to and approved by the local Institutional Review board for human subject usage. Eight apparently healthy college-aged (19.75yrs±1.2) female track and field athletes who compete in the throws events (shot put, hammer, javelin, discus) volunteered for this study (Table 1). The participants underwent a 1-RM test (Pre Max) for the bench press as prescribed by Baechle and Earle (2) as a normal part of practice and their coach reported their values (59.5kg±19.8).

Table 1. Descriptive Data of the Participants

Conditions	Mean±SD
Age (yrs)	19.7±1.2
Height (cm)	171.5±8.7
Weight (kg)	94.7±29.9

*Descriptive data of the (n=8) female participants listed in mean±SD.*

#### Procedures

Participants recruited for the investigation underwent initial anthropometric testing including both height measurement via stadiometer (Health-o-Meter Inc., Bedford, OH.), weight via a balance beam scale (Health-o-Meter Inc., Bedford, OH.), and arm span measured from the farthest distance between finger tips with the arms held outstretched using a vinyl open reel tape measure. Arm span was determined in this manner because it was a simple and inexpensive method of performing an anthropometric assessment of the length of the arms that might also be assessed by a coach with relative ease. The experimental procedures were thoroughly explained to the participants prior the first session. Participants were also given a demonstration on the MVIC device. Grip width was also selected during the initial visit to limit the known effect of different grip widths on the bench press exercise (6). Following the initial visit, participants reported twice more for a total of 30 minutes per session.

##### MVIC induced fatigue

Fatigue was induced in the participants through a 30-second maximum voluntary contraction against a stationary bar set a height equal to 90 degrees of elbow flexion for the participant. The position of the bar was chosen to be approximately at the ‘sticking point’ in order to fatigue at a position critical to the successful completion of the lift. The MVIC device consisted of a standard power rack (York Barbell, York, PA.) with two sets of rails inserted, and a flat bench. A standard Olympic bar (York Barbell, York, PA.) was placed between the rails. The bar was supported from underneath by the lower rail and prevented from being lifted upward by the upper rail; the bar was thus held in a stationary position. The rails were adjustable in height, and the device was set to a point where the elbow of the participant was as close to 90 degrees as the adjustments on the device would allow. Participants were required to lay supine on the bench and press maximally against the Olympic bar for 30 seconds.

#### Experimental Design

The present investigation employed a within subjects design, with random assignment. The participants reported to the weight room on two separate occasions with 72 hours between visits. The sessions occurred at the same time as a normally scheduled team weightlifting session. Each participant was randomly assigned to one of two orders for treatment (STAND then MVIC, or MVIC then STAND).

##### Treatments

Each day began with a standard warm-up on the bench press. The first warm-up set consisted of 5 repetitions of a weight that represented 70% of the previously established one repetition maximum (1-RM). The second warm-up set of three repetitions was done with a weight that represented 80% of 1-RM. Following the warm-up on each day participants completed the protocol for one of two treatments. The first treatment was a standard (STAND) one repetition maximum determination on the bench press. The participants were instructed to attempt a total of three single repetition lifts to determine the maximum amount of weight that could be lifted on that day. The starting weight was set at a value that was approximately 2.25kg underneath the previously determined 1-RM. If the participant successfully completed the attempt they were allowed to increase the weight; if they failed at the attempt approximately 5kg was removed before the second attempt. The second treatment, pre-fatigue via maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC), was identical to STAND except that immediately prior to each attempt the participants performed 30 seconds of MVIC against a stationary bar at approximately 90 degrees of elbow flexion. All participants completed all three attempts under both conditions. At least 3 minutes of recovery were allowed between attempts to reduce between lift fatigue effects (1,7).

#### Statistical Analyses

Prior to analysis all dependant variables were analyzed for normality. Paired samples t-tests were utilized to examine the differences between the two treatments so the degree of pre-fatigue can be determined. Generalized Estimation Equation analysis was utilized to examine the fixed effects of measured arm span on subsequent bench press performance. Any significant interaction effects were further explored via multiple regression analysis. Significance was set a priori at alpha ≥0.05.

### Results

Paired samples t-tests were used to determine the difference between treatments (MVIC vs. STAND). The MVIC treatment resulted in significantly lower performance on the 1-RM test (p=0.02, Table 2). General Linear Model analysis was performed to evaluate fixed effects (Treatment, Arm span) on maximum weight lifted in the bench press. The omnibus test for the model was significant (Likelihood Ratio Chi-Square 3507.525, p<0.001). The analysis revealed main effects for treatment (STAND 59.78±18.8kg vs. MVIC 52.32±11.5kg, p<0.001) and arm span (p<0.001), as well as a significant two-way interaction treatment * arm span (p<0.001). Post-Hoc analysis via linear regression revealed that under the STAND treatment arm span was not a predictor of change in bench press performance as the ANOVA for the model was not significant (F-0.806, p=0.404); however, under the MVIC treatment (F=16.255, p=0.007) arm span was a significant negative predictor of change in bench press performance (Beta = -0.855, p<0.001) (Figure 1).

Table 2. Changes in 1-RM Strength by Treatment

Treatment	1RM post (kg)	Change from PreMax Value
MVIC pre-fatigue	53.0±11.5	-6.51±8.56
STAND	60.9±18.8	1.43±2.99

*All values are listed ±SD. 1RM post MVIC and STAND are significantly different p=0.02. Change between MVIC and STAND treatment are significantly different p=0.02.*

### Discussion

Based upon these data it would appear that in a state of induced pre-fatigue, arm span is a significant predictor of 1-RM performance in the bench press for female collegiate track and field throwers. Though previous research has not demonstrated similar findings(5), these findings did not represent data obtained from fatigued subjects. It would appear plausible that the effects of arm span on the bench press may only become manifest in situations of fatigue.

Understanding fatigue is an important consideration for coaches. First, a majority of an athlete’s bench press workouts is a series of sets resulting in muscular fatigue. Secondly, weight-training sessions may occur after a practice has already taken place, ensuring muscular fatigue before the bench press workout begins. Post-exercise fatigue may limit the effectiveness of the resistance-training program as an adaptive physiologic stimulus for strength gains. Understanding how each athlete reacts to fatigue in a workout is imperative to designing a training program in order to achieve maximal strength.

Track and field throws coaches in particular must specifically understand how arm span will affect bench press workouts. Throws coaches often target athletes with longer arms for recruiting purposes; longer levers are advantageous for the discus and hammer events. Coaches training athletes with a greater arm span may have to change bench press protocol to account for a greater fatigue.

The present investigation was not without limitations. Firstly, the choice of measurement of arm span versus actual determination of skeletal lengths was made to increase the applicability of the findings to coaches, but is also a limiting factor. Secondly, the simulated method of fatigue chosen for practicality for the current investigation may not be completely representative of fatigue that occurs as the result of a weight room training session. Though not without limitation, the finding remains that arm span was a significant negative predictor of performance in the pre-fatigued condition.

Future research needs to establish the relationship between arm span and differences in muscle fatigability, and exercise training and prescription in order to optimize strength development in males and females.

### Conclusions

Arm span is a practical measure that can easily be assessed by any coach with access to a tape measure. Fitness professionals and coaches should be aware that in a fatigued state arm span is a negative predictor of performance in the bench press in female track and field throwers. Therefore, it is important for the coach to understand the individual differences among the athletes who are involved in the program; the amount of required recovery time may differ among individuals (4). Considerations for this can be suggested to professionals working with similar athletes including limiting the number of sets performed and focusing on quality of the lifts performed in order to allow for the associated fatigue.

The professional may also want to consider the optimization of the training volume for these athletes based upon the finding that arm span may affect performance in a multiple set lifting scheme. The coach can reduce the number of sets based upon arm span in order to compensate for the increased impact of fatigue that will likely occur for athletes with longer arm spans. For optimizing strength gains, exercise training and prescription to females should be modulated based upon arm span and related to: (1) resistance training to failure versus not to failure; and (2) the effects of a single set versus multiple sets.

### Applications in Sport

Coaches involved in events or sports (i.e. basketball and volleyball) where arm length is a determinant of athletic potential must recognize that these athletes might fatigue to a different degree during weight training than shorter-armed teammates or counterparts. Therefore, it is essential for the coach to understand the individual anthropometric differences among the athletes who are involved in the resistance training program because the amount of required recovery time may differ among individuals. Coaches need to understand this concept in order to get the full strength potential out of their athletes.

### References

Ambdessemed, D. (1999). Effects of recovery duration on muscular power and blood lactate during the bench press exercise. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 20(6), 368-373.

Baechle, T.R., & Earle, R.W. (2008). Essentials of strength training and conditioning (3rd ed.). Champaign: Human Kinetics.

Elliot, B.C., Wilson, G.J., & Graham, K.K. (1989). A biomechanical analysis of the sticking region in the bench press. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 21(4), 450-462.

Judge, L.W., & Burke, J. (2010). The effect of recovery time on strength performance following a high intensity bench press workout in males and females. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 5, 184-196.

Mayhew, J.L., Jacques, J.A., Ware, J.S., Chapman, P.P., Bemben, M.G., Ward, T.E., & Slovack, J.P. (2004). Anthropometric dimensions do not enhance one repetition maximum prediction from the NFL-225 test in college football players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 18(3), 572-582.

Murphy, A.J., Wilson, G.J., Pryor, J.F., Newton, R.U. (1995). Isometric assessment of muscular function: The effect of joint angle. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 11, 205-215.

Reynolds, J.M., Gordon, T.J., Robergs, R.A. (2006). Predictions of one repetition maximum strength from multiple repetition maximum testing and anthropometry. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 20(3), 584-592.

Wagner, L.L., Evans, S.A., Weir, J.P., Housh, T.J., Johnson, G.O. (1992). The effects of grip width on bench press performance. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 8(1), 1-10.

### Corresponding Author
Dr. David Bellar
Department of Kinesiology
University of Louisiana at Lafayette
225 Cajundome Blvd
Lafayette, LA 70506
<dmb1527@louisiana.edu>
(216) 374-2590

### Author Bios

David Bellar is an assistant professor and director of the human performance lab in the department of kinesiology at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette. Dr. Bellar has a background in coaching track and field athletes, and researching performance attributes within this population.

Lawrence Judge is an associate professor and coordinator of the graduate coaching program at Ball State University. Dr. Judge has a long-established background in coaching track and field athletes and an extensive research background in coaching behavior, moral issues, and competitiveness versus participation in athletics, specifically in youth sports.

Tiffany Patrick is an undergraduate student studying exercise science in the department of kinesiology at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette.

Erin Gilreath is a graduate assistant studying coaching/sports performance at Ball State University. Erin is the current American record holder in the hammer throw and a 2004 Olympian.

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-25T16:46:57-06:00October 4th, 2010|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Facilities|Comments Off

Introduction to the International Olympic Academy

Anne Kent Rush, Editor

International Olympic Academy in Olympia, Greece

### IOA Today

The International Olympic Academy (IOA) established in Olympia, Greece, serves a multi-national community as an International Academic Centre for Olympic Studies. It is an outstanding academic resource for students and researchers around the globe. Run by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the Greek government, the IOA makes available a broad spectrum of educational programs and studies aimed at disseminating the vision of Olympism.

In February 2010, in collaboration with the Department of Sports Organization and Management of the University of Peloponnese (UOP) in Sparta, the IOA announced their new Master’s Degree Program titled, Olympic Studies, Olympic Education, Organization, and Management of Olympic Events. The program is constructed on the three pillars of Olympism, Education, Sports, and Culture. Prospective students can access information on the programs through the National Olympic Academy (NOA) of their home country. Students may also contact the Secretary of the IOA Master Program by telephone at 30-210-6878952, or by email at ioa-ms@uop.gr. Applications may be sent directly to the following address: Dr. K. Georgiadis, Program Director; Postgraduate Studies Program U.O.P. 52; Dimitrios Vikelas Avenue 152 33 Halandri; Athens, Greece.

Participants in the 10th Joint International Session for Presidents or Directors of National Olympic Academies and Officials of National Olympic Committees gather in front of the International Olympic Academy.

International conferences on topics related to Olympism are often held on the idyllic grounds at Ancient Olympia. The Olympic Solidarity organization in Lausanne, Switzerland, offers a variety of scholarship funds for many IOA studies and projects. The new Master’s Degree Program, limited to 30 students, is privately funded by the John S. Latsis Foundation, and no costs are charged to the students for its course fees and accommodations. The duration of the program is three semesters, two of which take place in Greece at the International Olympic Academy. Participants in IOA seminars must be fluent in at least one of the three official languages, Greek, French, and English.

Based on Olympic ideals, IOA educational programs not only benefit individual students, but also have the potential to help raise the standards of global interaction among countries for years to come. In May 2010, at the 10th Joint International Session, the presenters basked in the historic power of Ancient Olympia and added their words and hopes to the distinguished voices of the ages. You are invited to share the information and join the international dialogue on the spread of Olympism through education. Authorized by the IOC, the presentations are offered for public study in this unique edition of _The Sport Journal_.

### IOA History

Officially inaugurated on 14 June 1961, the IOA initially limited its function to organizing the International Session for Young Participants. In 1967, an IOC commission was created to coordinate relations among the IOA, the Olympic Movement, and Olympic Solidarity. This same year, the first permanent premises for the IOA were constructed at the site of Ancient Olympia.

The Temple of Hera is one of the oldest monumental temples in Ancient Greece. The modern day Olympic torch is lit just as it was in ancient times, at the Temple of Hera.

By 1970, the educational programs of the IOA had expanded to cover all aspects of the Olympic Movement. Special sessions for institutions involved with Olympism were established, including National Olympic Committees (NOC), National Olympic Academies (NOA), International Sport Federations (FIEP), Sport Medical Societies, Unions of Coaches, Sports Administrators, and Teachers.

Growing out of ancient Greek civilization, Olympism is a philosophy of life that blends sport, culture, and education to produce a balanced character strong in body, mind, and will. Convening at Ancient Olympia infused with this dramatic lineage is important to the spirit of the conferences, and the campus exerts a profound effect on all who visit and study there.

> “We are in a haven of peace and balance, where centuries remain engraved on the stones… the beauty of the vegetation, and the serenity which pervades this unique place, Olympia, where sport started on its most glorious and finest course.”
> Juan Antonio Samaranch, Former Honorary President of the IOC and IOA; International Olympic Academy, 2009; p. 52

Many of these ancient traditions continue today. Two of the most powerful ceremonies are the laying of wreaths at the monument where Pierre de Coubertin’s heart is buried to honor the man who revived the Ancient Games, and the Lighting of the Olympic Flame to inaugurate the official Olympic Games.

In Ancient Greece, a person needed well-rounded training to be considered cultured. Sport was part of man’s education that aimed at cultivating harmonious intellectual, mental, and physical faculties. Young students were taught art, philosophy, and music, as well as sports, based on the spirit of fair competition and high ethics.

An actress dressed as a ceremonial priestess, in the robes of the ancient Greeks, lights the Olympic torch via the same technique used in the original Games.

Held every four years, the Ancient Olympic Games were an integral part of the balanced way of life. With its origins in the mists of Greek mythological tales of gods and goddesses, the honor of victory at the Olympic Games carried sacred blessings and immense prestige. The Olympic Games went through many reversals of fortune due to political changes over the long history. From circa 400 AD to the late 1800s, no organized Olympic Games existed. Then in 1896, Pierre de Coubertin succeeded in reviving the tradition, and the first modern Olympic Games were held in Athens.

In 1927, Coubertin originated the idea for adding an international Olympic academy in his efforts to spread Olympic values. In the IOA, the realization of his vision continues to grow as a result of the dedicated contributions of many people over decades. Now overseen by the IOC, the International Olympic Movement (IOM) has been formed to functionally implement Olympic ideals through a conglomeration of organizations and individuals. Recognizing education as the backbone of the Olympic Movement, the IOC supports the IOA and other institutions devoted to Olympic education.

The current IOA houses many priceless resources, such as an archeological museum, a modern Olympic Games museum, a research library, the Coubertin Grove, and the excavated ruins of Ancient Olympia’s temples, gymnasium, and Sanctuary constructed by Alexander the Great in 338 B.C. These exalted settings, sacred to the Greek god, Zeus, offer a cornucopia of contemporary sports media conferences, research studies, special sessions for dignitaries, gatherings of Olympic medalists, the Olympic Studies Master’s Degree Program, and other courses for international students of the IOA.

> “The Olympic Games are… the only competition in the world… transcending cultural, religious, and political differences, an Image of fraternity and universality.”
> Jacques Rogge, President of the IOC; International Olympic Academy, 2009; p. 68

From left: Professor Konstantino Georgiadis, IOA Honorary Dean; Dr. Thomas P. Rosandich, United States Sports Academy President; Mr. Isidoros Kouvelos, IOA President; and Professor Dionyssis Gangas, IOA Director, were among the many Olympic experts who attended the 10th Joint International Session for Presidents or Directors of National Olympic Academies and Officials of National Olympic Committees.

U.S. Sports Academy2020-06-02T13:33:14-05:00August 10th, 2010|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Management|Comments Off

How to Spread and Develop Joint International Programs about Olympic Education: Cultural and Communication Problems

Henry Tandau, Director of the Tanzania Olympic Academy, the Republic of Tanzania

### Introduction

From its inception, the Modern Olympic Movement has fused education with sport and culture to improve both the body and mind. Pierre de Coubertin, the father of the Modern Olympic Games, crafted a vision of universal education through Olympism, spreading such ideals as discipline, focus, vision, commitment, and persistence.

The Olympic Charter (OC) is the codification of the Fundamental Principles of Olympism, Rules and Bye-Laws adopted by the International Olympic Committee (IOC). It governs the organisation, action, and operation of the Olympic Movement and sets forth the conditions for the celebration of the Olympic Games. In essence, the Olympic Charter serves three main purposes (IOC, 2007).

* The Olympic Charter, as a basic instrument of a constitutional nature, sets forth and recalls the fundamental principles and essential values of Olympism.
* The Olympic Charter also serves as statutes for the International Olympic Committee.
* In addition, the Olympic Charter defines the main reciprocal rights and obligations of the three main constituents of the Olympic Movement, namely the International Olympic Committee, the International Federations, and the National Olympic Committees, as well as the Organising Committees for the Olympic Games, all of which are required to comply with the Olympic Charter (IOC, 2007).

Fundamental to the understanding of Olympism is its emphasis on an educational mandate. In fact, the “Olympic idea cannot be understood without an understanding of its educational mission” (Gessman, 1992:33). This educational mandate is outlined in several of the Fundamental Principles of the Olympic Charter (Binder, 2005).

The Olympic Charter (2007) states simply the relationship among Olympic philosophy, ethics, and education:

Fundamental Principle 1 and 2 (p11):

1. Olympism is a philosophy of life, exalting and combining in a balanced whole the qualities of body, will, and mind. Blending sport with culture and education, Olympism seeks to create a way of life based on the joy of effort, the educational value of good example, and respect for universal fundamental ethical principles.
2. The goal of Olympism is to place sport at the service of the harmonious development of man, with a view to promoting a peaceful society concerned with the preservation of human dignity.

This is a values education mandate. Some of the specific, positive values referred to in these principles include a respect for balance in the human character between aspects of mind, body, and spirit, an understanding of the joy found in effort, an emphasis on peaceful behaviour, and respect for others (here described as preservation of human dignity). The principles, while somewhat awkward in their English wording, also include direction for an Olympic pedagogy. That is, the fundamental principles seem to suggest components of a possible teaching and learning strategy. Note the references to such strategies as, “blending sport with culture and education,” setting “good examples,” and encouraging participation in sport as an educational situation in which these values can be developed (Binder, 2005).

### National Olympic Committees

Chapter 4 of the Olympic Charter deals with National Olympic Committees, stating very clearly important duties of NOCs with regard to Olympic education (IOC, 2007, p. 61).

Mission and Role of the NOCs:

1. The mission of the NOCs is to develop, promote, and protect the Olympic Movement in their respective countries, in accordance with the Olympic Charter (IOC, 2007).
2. The NOCs’ role is:

1. to promote the fundamental principles and values of Olympism in their countries, in particular, in the fields of sport and education, by promoting Olympic educational programmes in all levels of schools, sports and physical education institutions and Universities, as well as by encouraging the creation of institutions dedicated to Olympic education, such as National Olympic Academies, Olympic Museums, and other programmes, including cultural, related to the Olympic Movement (IOC, 2007);
2. to ensure the observance of the Olympic Charter in their countries (IOC, 2007).

### National Olympic Academies

National Olympic Academies are an integral part of the International Olympic Academy and the Olympic Movement (Georgiadis, 2008). Georgiadis further elaborates that, once the IOA had begun its activities, a number of important and substantial issues related to its operation and linked to the attainment of its goals came to light. It became obvious that IOA needed support of other organizations in order to respond to the educational requirements of the Olympic Movement.

> Attending lectures during the IOA’s sessions was not considered sufficient to make participants aware of the academy’s mission and their own contribution to it.
>
> The selection of the participants, their preliminary training, their stay at the International Olympic Academy, and the need to draw upon their knowledge and experience, led to the creation of national centres for Olympic studies in other countries.

Georgiadis goes on to explain that participants in the IOA sessions and seminars now had a point of reference in their own respective countries around which they could rally in order to develop their Olympic education activities in cooperation with IOA.

Georgiadis notes that, in the discussion groups at the IOA’s sessions, the idea of a “National Olympic Academy” is considered as a popular topic. In the same observation, Georgiadis further recounts that, as many Olympic Committees do not comply with their educational obligations in a consistent manner, participants at the sessions have demanded the creation of National Olympic Academies (NOAs) to allow those who attend the sessions of the IOA once they return to their country to become involved in their core activities and operate as the ambassadors of Olympism in their homelands.

Today, 32 years after the establishment of the first National Olympic Academies, the aim of each Olympic Academy is, through Olympic Education programs, to cultivate and disseminate the Olympic Ideal, study and apply the universal education and social principles of the Olympic Movement, in conformity with the Olympic Charter, within the national and cultural boundaries of each National Olympic Committee, in cooperation with the IOA and the IOC.

These aims are achieved by NOAs by the means of programs which they develop themselves in collaboration with the NOC and other sports and educational entities in their country. National Olympic Academies are the IOA’s extensions and operate as transmitters and receivers for the promotion of the Olympic Charter’s ideals through the national Olympic education programs. Each national Olympic Academy must also encourage the practice of sport among all social and age groups and promote the idea of sport as a fundamental human right.

Georgiadis elaborates that “National Olympic Academies operate within the framework of their respective National Olympic Committees and their aims are in harmony with those of the NOCs.” The NOAs are the educational institutions of the NOCs. Even when there are differences in their structures and modes of operation, they must always be placed under the patronage of the NOC within the framework of a single Olympic Movement. It would be very difficult today to define a single system for the operation of NOAs, as there are huge administrative, cultural, and political differences from country to country.

The goal of education – of Olympism – may is summarized in a quote from 2000 by then IOC President, Juan Antonio Samaranch: “Every act of support for the Olympic Movement promotes peace, friendship, and solidarity throughout the world.”

The field of Olympic education has been studied in-depth by numerous international scholars. They have endeavoured to analyze the core of Olympic education so as to avoid the concept of Olympic education being regarded merely as a pool of all highly social and moral values. It is more or less commonly agreed that the idea of Olympic education first and foremost encompasses the long-ranging striving for individual achievement with due respect for the principles of fair play and an increase in a better transnational mutual understanding by supporting processes of intercultural learning.

In the course of the last decades, some scholars have successfully endeavoured to spread the main ideas of Olympic education. The main target groups have been students and pupils. At the International Olympic Academy in Olympia, as well as at conferences organized by various National Olympic Committees, Olympic Academies, and institutes of learning, students are offered the possibility of examining basic ideas of Olympic education.

Frequently the students bring their experience and knowledge back to their home universities in order to integrate them into classes or tutorials. Without doubt, this is a fruitful way to disseminate the central values of Olympic education.

According to Binder, Olympic education in its broadest sense encompasses the workshops and leadership training of Olympic Solidarity, the research and scholarly study of sport historians and sociologists, the public relations efforts of the International Olympic Committee (IOC), its sponsors and its affiliates, as well as the school curricula, handbooks and projects of Olympic Games organizing committees, National Olympic Committees (NOCs), and National Olympic Academies (NOAs). It also encompasses a large variety of initiatives for children and youth (Binder D., 1995).

### International Olympic Academy

The International Olympic Academy functions as a multicultural interdisciplinary centre that aims at studying, enriching, and promoting Olympism. The foundation of such an institution was inspired by the ancient Gymnasium, which shaped the Olympic Ideal by harmoniously cultivating body, will, and mind. On the eve of the 21st century, the centennial anniversary of the revival of the Olympic Games coincides with the global scale changes that are affecting every aspect of human thought and activity.

We, our cultures, and our civilisations have already entered a greater transitional period in which the images of the world that we were used to taking for granted are being altered. The interrelated scientific, technological, economic, political, and social developments that characterise the course of humanity towards the third millennium are influencing each and every idea, norm, and institution of our international community.

This dynamic wave is also opening up new forms of dialogue for the future of Olympism. Moreover, as can be seen through the study of its age-long history, the Olympic Ideal has always been conceived and formed according to the wider conditions prevailing during different periods in time.

The birth, the prosperity, the decline, and the revival of the Olympic Games have all been the reflection of the wider cultural conditions that shaped each era.

The speculations and potentials still evolving out of the Olympic Movement are naturally arising in the realisation process of such an Ideal.

“Olympism,” in the words of Pierre de Coubertin, “is not a system; it is a state of mind. It can permeate a wide variety of modes of expression, and no single race or era can claim to have the monopoly of it.”

The International Olympic Academy provides a unique opportunity for students, academics, athletes, artists, and officials from all over the world to exchange ideas and share this “state of mind” in Ancient Olympia.

The wide variety of educational sessions, academic programmes, and in depth research studies that are offered all aim towards serving the vision of the International Olympic Academy for the new century: to explore and enhance the contribution of Olympism to humanity.

The mission of the IOA is:

1. to function as an International Academic Centre for Olympic Studies, Education, and Research;
2. to act as an International Forum for free expression and exchange of ideas among the Olympic Family, intellectuals, scientists, athletes, sport administrators, educators, artists, and the youth of the world;
3. to bring together people from all over the world, in a spirit of friendship and cooperation;
4. to motivate people to use the experiences and knowledge gained in the IOA productively, in promoting the Olympic Ideals in their respective countries;
5. to serve and promote the Ideals and principles of the Olympic Movement;
6. to cooperate with and assist the National Olympic Academies and any other institutions devoted to Olympic Education;
7. to further explore and enhance the contribution of Olympism to humanity.

### Educational Programmes of the International Olympic Academy

* International Session for Young Participants
* International Post Graduate Seminar on Olympic Studies
* Joint International Session for Directors of NOAs, Members, and Staff of NOCs and IFs
* Joint International Session for Educationists and Staff of Higher Institutes of Physical Education
* International Session for Sports Journalists
* Special Sessions for institutions related with Olympism: National Olympic Committees, National Olympic Academies, International Sport Federations, Sport Medical Societies, Unions of Coaches, Referees, Sports Administrators, etc.
* Special Sessions for Institutions indirectly related with Olympism (C.I.S.M., Teachers, etc.) aiming to promote the Olympic Ideal
* Educational visits of groups from various institutions (universities, graduate schools, schools, sports clubs)
* Visits of Researchers of Olympic subjects
* Conferences on Sports

All the IOA Sessions are held in Ancient Olympia, and participants are accommodated in the guestrooms located on the Academy grounds.

The IOA has three official languages, English, French and Greek, and participants must be fluent in at least one in order to participate in the educational programmes. The Joint Session for Presidents or Directors of NOAs and Officials of NOCs, is perhaps the most important of all the sessions for the success of almost all the other sessions. This biannual Session aims to bring together Senior Administrators from organizations engaged in creating Olympic Education programmes and involved in educational and social activities aiming to promote the Olympic Movement.

The IOA’s role is to coordinate and assist the NOAs in their work, and this Session provides a forum for the exchange of ideas and educational programmes and the presentation of the activities of the NOAs and NOCs in different countries. Communication and the working culture of the NOCs and NOAs is of paramount importance in the success of these sessions. The choice of participants, preparation, and commitment of the participants is key to the realization of the intended objective.

This year’s session is the tenth in the series. As such, there is need to reflect on the organization and management of these joint sessions so as to improve the quality of the sessions and to realise the intended goal, that of developing and spreading Olympic Education. Communication is an important factor in the success of any humankind undertaking. Several factors contribute either positively or negatively on communication, such as timeliness, language, clarity, accuracy, medium, feedback or response, and ability to follow instruction, the working culture or policy of an organization in relation to communication issues.

This paper sets out to present the problems encountered in the quest of organizing such sessions, specifically focusing on cultural and communication problems.

### Methodology

The literature review method was the primary method used in developing this paper. Published and unpublished sources have been used. Correspondence between IOA, and NOAs, and NOCs, past session presentations and Conclusions were also reviewed. Personal experience from attending a number of sessions of IOA and discussions with IOA Masters students (2009 / 2010), have all been taken into consideration.

### Findings and discussion

* Often times there has been confusion between delegates of NOAs and NOCs to the extent that the IOA has had to request NOAs and NOCs to clearly state whether or not a delegate is a member of NOA or NOC. Sometimes delegates have been sent who are not involved in the Education functions of the NOAs or NOCs.
* Quite a number of delegates are sent to Olympia without prior preparation as to what to expect and what is expected of them. With some countries, there is a turn-over every year, where the policy is to award the trip to members of the NOC in turns. As such, there is no continuity; this has forced the IOA to insist that the President / Director of NOAs must attend the Directors and the joint sessions.
* Non adherence to Final Enrolment date: “We have noticed in the past that many NOAs or NOCs do not submit their application forms in due time. We hereby would like to bring to your attention that no application submitted after the expiry date will be considered.”
* Language: Participants must have an excellent knowledge of either English or French, since they are expected to take active part in the discussion groups which follow the lectures. This is the quintessence of the IOA’s activities, i.e., to get people from all over the world to know and contact one another. It has been repeatedly noticed in the past that quite a few participants cannot understand or speak either English or French and consequently, they are unable to participate fully in the discussion groups. Therefore, all NOCs and NOAs are kindly requested to avoid sending over delegates who do not speak fluently at least one of the above two languages.
* Working relationship between NOAs and NOCs is another challenge that features prominently in the conclusions of the group discussions of the sessions, especially as relates to accessibility to information and financial support. This problem is more pronounced in countries which rely solely on Olympic Solidarity funding. Rarely are any Olympic Education activities undertaken for want of funding. In most other NOCs, NOAs exist only on paper, and no activities take place apart from attending the sessions here in Olympia.
* In the conclusions of English Speaking Group 5, during the 9th International Session For Directors of National Olympic Academies (1- 8 June 2007), Ibrahim Abazid, et, al., considered the challenges, difficulties, and solutions to implementing Olympic Education Program and concluded that there are three key challenges that needed to be addressed. They named these as: relationship between NOA and NOC, communication, and financial difficulties.

### Conclusion

We observe from the above that there are communication problems within the key players involved in the development and dissemination of International Joint Sessions on Olympic Education, namely, the IOC (through OS), the IOA, the NOCs, and NOAs. The gap is more pronounced between NOCs and NOAs. This communication problem is both in terms of availability and timeliness, as well as response or feedback.

This is a result of poor working relationship between NOCs and NOAs; the main cause has been attributed to non-information sharing by the NOCs, even in instances where NOAs are directly under the NOC. NOAs are hardly ever made aware of the funding opportunities from Olympic Solidarity. Even the funds provided to NOCs under “Other Activities” are hardly ever communicated to NOAs; and the quadrennial plans which offer a number of opportunities are unknown to most NOA officials.

It is also noted that in some cases, the NOAs are only on paper, or spring up when it is time for a trip to Olympia; no initiatives are done to organize and spread Olympic education in the respective countries. The young participants who are sent to Olympia are not chosen on merit since there are no Olympic Education activities, in some countries.

Officials not involved in Olympic Education have been sent to these sessions, while being fully aware that they will not involve themselves in the dissemination of Olympic Education when they go back to their countries. NOCs should work together with NOAs to select the best candidates based on merit to attend such sessions. A system should be developed to ensure that those who attend these sessions have the knowledge, motivation, and commitment to embark on creation and spreading of Olympic Education.

A working guideline should be developed to ensure a smooth working relationships among the key players in the development and spread of Olympic Education, namely: the IOC (through Olympic Solidarity), the IOA, the NOCs, and the NOAs. This document should be made available to all and be posted on the IOC and IOA websites.

### References

Binder, D.L. (2005). Challenges and Models for successful Olympic Education Initiatives at Grassroots Level. Paper presented during Forum organized by the Centre for Olympic Studies – Olympic Perspectives.

Binder, D. L. (2007).Teaching Values: An Olympic Education Toolkit. International Olympic Committee, 2007.

Binder, D. L. (2005). Teaching Olympism in Schools: Olympic Education as a focus on Values Education. University of Barcelona – Olympic Studies Centre.

Georgiadis, K. (2008). National Olympic Academies. International Olympic Academy. 9th Joint International Session for Presidents or Directors of National Olympic Academies and Officials of National Olympic Committees 12 – 19 May 2008; Conclusions.

International Olympic Academy – circular Ref. No.: 1376 / KG /st Athens, 8th December 2009.

International Olympic Academy. 8th International Session for Directors of National Olympic Academies 18th – 25th April 2005; Conclusions.

International Olympic Academy. 8th Joint International Session for Presidents or Directors of National Olympic Academies and Officials of National Olympic Committees 23 – 30 May 2006; Conclusions.

International Olympic Academy. 9th International Session for Directors of National Olympic Academies 1 – 8 June 2007; Conclusions.

International Olympic Academy. 9th Joint International Session for Presidents or Directors of National Olympic Academies and Officials of National Olympic Committees 12 – 19 May 2008; Conclusions.

IOA Website. www.ioa.org.gr

IOC. (2007). Olympic Charter. Lausanne, Switzerland.

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-25T17:21:05-06:00August 5th, 2010|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Management|Comments Off