Sports Studies and Sports Psychology – Page 58

British Soccer Superhooligans: Emergence and Establishment: 1982-2000

Submitted by:

By
defining match days and football grounds as times and places
in which fighting could be engaged in and aggressive forms
of masculinity displayed, the media, especially the national
tabloid press, played a part of some moment in stimulating
and shaping the development of soccer hooliganism (p. 122).

Murphy et al., (1990), believe that the amount of publicity
given to the superhooligan groups and their leaders increased
the membership ranks with “hardcases and other socio-pathic
nutters” (Murphy et al., 1990, p. 168), who were not
previously involved with soccer hooliganism.

The
media was not only engaged in reporting and predicting soccer
superhooliganism, but it also led the call for remedial action
against the soccer thugs. However, the media-advocated policy
measures introduced to combat soccer superhooliganism “tended
to displace the disorder on to the streets outside football
grounds, sometimes at considerable distances from them, rather
than to eradicate it” (Murphy et al., 1990, p. 122).

Involvement
by the media in soccer hooliganism included publishing their
own ‘league tables of hooligan notoriety.’ The Daily
Mail September, 1986, ran a headline, “Chelsea tops thugs
league” Murphy (1990), or, the Evening Standard had a
center spread page on July 29, 1985, which read, “London
league of violence” Murphy et al., (1990). The impact
these articles have had on the reader depends on individual
motivations. Superhooligans view the publicity as validating
their activity. When an article is published, identifying
the Chelsea Headhunters as the top superhooligan group, other
superhooligans view this as a challenge to knock Chelsea off
of the top spot.

The
root causes of present-day soccer superhooliganism are deep
and complex. Newspapers, in particular the tabloid press,
“have made a contribution of some significance to the
rise of present-day hooliganism and to giving it its distinctively
contemporary form” (Murphy et al., 1990, p. 124). Articles
featuring stories on superhooligan group leaders, although
not necessarily condoning them, rarely condemned their activities
either. The press undoubtedly contributed to the “intensification
of the status competition between rival hooligan groups”
(Murphy et al., 1990, p. 124), and the tabloid press has been
responsible for feature stories portraying superhooligan leaders
as prosperous and from middle class backgrounds. Exaggeration
on the part of the press, according to Canter (1989), further
sensationalized the leaders concerned, which consequently
attracted to superhooliganism some ‘non-typical’ hooligan
types. That the popular press is responsible for aiding and
abetting the soccer superhooliganism phenomenon by its extensive
and sensationalized coverage is patently obvious. The press
could have played a key role in diffusing the soccer hooligan
movement during its early stages – but it chose instead to
use hooliganism to sell papers and, consequently, led in the
emergence and establishment of Britian’s soccer super-hooligans.

References

Buford,
B. (1991). Among the thugs. London: Seker and Warburg.

Canter,
D., Comber, M., and Uzzell, D. (1989). Football in its place:
an environmental psychology of football grounds. London: Routledge.

Cohen,
P. (1988). Policing the working class city, in Capitalism
and the rule of law. London: Hutchinson, pps. 118-36.

Dunning,
E. (1994). The Social Roots of football Hooliganism: A reply
to the Critics of “The Leicester School,” in N.
Bonney, R. Giulanotti, M. Hepworth (eds), Football, violence
and social identity. Routledge, London.

Dunning,
E., Murphy, P. and Williams, J. (1986). Spectator violence
at football matches: towards a sociological explanation. British
Journal of Sociology, 37, (2).

Dunning,
E., Murphy, P. and Williams, J. (1988). The roots of football
hooliganism. London: Routledge.

Harrington,
J. (1968). Soccer hooliganism. Bristol: John Wright.

Keating,
F. (1985, August 16). Fans who get their kicks off the field.
The Guardian.

Keel,
P. (1987, January 8). Slashed fan identified mob boss, court
told. The Guardian.

Kerr,
J. H. (1994). Understanding soccer hooliganism. Milton Keynes:
Open University Press.

Murphy,
P., Williams, J., & Dunning, E. (1990). Football on trial:
spectator violence and development in the football world.
London: Routledge.

Pearson,
G. (1983). Hooligan: a history of respectable fears. Basingstoke:
Macmillan.

Popplewell,
O. (1986). Committee of enquiry into crowd safety and control
at sports grounds. Final report. London: HMSO, 6.

Robins,
D. (1984). We hate humans. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Taylor,
I., & Ingham, R. (Eds) (1978). Football hooliganism: the
wider context. London: Inter-Action.

Taylor,
I. (1988). British soccer after Brussels. Sociology of Sport
Journal No. 4, pps. 171-91.

Taylor,
R. (1993). Football and its fans: supporters and their relations
with the game, 1885-1985. Leicester: Leicester University
Press.

Trivizas,
E. 1980. Offences and offenders in football crowd disorders.
British Journal of Criminology, 20, (3).

Van
Limbergen, K., & Walgrave, L. (1988). ‘Euro’ 88:
Fans and hooligans. Youth criminology research group report
commissioned by the Belgian minister of interior.

Wagg,
S. (1984). The football world: a contemporary social history.
Brighton: Harvester Press.

Walvin,
J. (1986). Football and the decline of Britain. London: Macmillan
Press Ltd.

Walvin,
J. (1994). The people’s game: the history of football revisited.
London: Mainstream Publishing.

Ward,
C. (1996). All quiet on the hooligan front. Edinburgh: Mainstream.

Williams,
J., & Wagg, S. (Eds) (1991). British football and social
change: getting into Europe.

Leicester:
Leicester University Press.

Williams,
J., Dunning, E., & Murphy, P. J. (1984). Hooligans abroad:
the behavior and control of English fans in continental Europe.
London: Routledge and Keegan Paul.

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-26T21:53:54-06:00February 14th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

A Comparison of Academic Athletic Eligibility in Interscholastic Sports in American High Schools

Submitted by: Dr. Bruce J. Bukowski

Academic eligibility for student-athletes in public high school athletic programs across America has many variations and has been changing over the past twenty years. But how far have we come in motivating athletes in the classroom? The term student-athlete implies that the person involved with education and athletics is both a good student in the classroom and an active and effective participant on an athletic team. In theory, academic competence is a criterion for athletic participation. It has been proven that high school athletes tend to have a higher grade point average (GPA) than nonathletes (Eitzen & Saga, 1993). As school districts and athletic directors work to show accountability to the parents and taxpayers in their respective communities through the revision of athletic codes, it is important to address the issue of student athlete academic performance.

Efforts to reform academic eligibility for high school athletes began in 1983, amid strong resistance from coaches, parents, and others (Wolf, 1983). The Los Angles Unified School District instituted a rule that stated, “To be eligible for participation in extracurricular activities students must maintain a C average in four subjects and have no failures” (Eitzen & Sage, 1989). In 1984 the state of Texas introduced a “No Pass No Play” rule that stated that athletes could not have any failing grades if they were to participate in a sporting activity (Richards, 1987). Initially, a large group of students became ineligible to compete and there was strong opposition from coaches and parents. But in a matter of two years, in both of these instances, the percentage of students who were declared ineligible was the same as before the rule was enacted. Since these initial attempts at academic eligibility in interscholastic athletics in the 80s, how far have the high school athletic programs come in challenging the student athletes in actually being good students? Are more schools demanding grade points for athletic eligibility? How long are the academic eligibility suspensions? The intent of this study is to compare school athletic programs throughout America in order to identify current trends in high school athletics in challenging athletes to become better students.

The researcher randomly selected 125 high schools across 48 states and compared their requirements for athletic eligibility. The focus was on four specific academic eligibility areas: 1) minimum individual grade point average for athletic participation, 2) maximum number of Fs that an athlete can have and still participate, 3) the time frame for athletic-academic suspension for athletes that don’t achieve the minimum requirements, and 4) a adherence to individual state association guidelines for academic eligibility.

Minimum Individual Grade Point Average

Minimum grade points for athletic participation in interscholastic sports ranged from no minimum grade point to 2.5. Some of the schools didn’t include a grade point but demanded a percentage grade to be met in all classes (70% or 60%). Many of the schools included in the study have considered including a grade point in their academic standards for their athletes but coaching staffs have strongly opposed this move. Of the 125 schools included in the study, only 31 schools indicated that they had incorporated a minimum grade point for athletic eligibility; only 19 had a grade point of 2.0 or above. Student-athletes in 94 of the 125 schools could be eligible to participate in athletics with a grade point of 1.0 and less. On the low end a student could be eligible to play in some of these schools by passing 4 of 7 courses with 4 Ds and 3 Fs (GPA 0.71). The most stringent of the schools in this study required a grade point average of 2.5, with students receiving no Fs, in order to be eligible to participate in the interscholastic athletic program. It should be mentioned that all states require a minimum unit of courses that students must be enrolled in order to even participate in athletic programs. A unique policy found in 4 schools in this study required students to have attendance rates of 80% or better to participate along with the academic criteria.

Maximum Number of Failing Grades

After grade point average for athletic eligibility, the most popular criteria in many of the schools is the number of Fs a student-athlete can earn in his/ her academic load per semester. I found that the number of Fs a student can have and still be eligible ranged from no Fs (no pass no play) to three. Of the 125 schools, 23 indicated that their athletes could have no Fs for athletic eligibility. Fifteen schools indicated that their athletes could have 2 or 3 Fs and still participate; seven of these 15 schools included a GPA requirement. The most common academic standard for the number of Fs a student could have was that the student-athlete could still participate with one F; this was indicated by 87 schools in the study. In all of the schools, an incomplete was treated as an F or non-passing grade.

Academic Suspension

Academic suspension from athletic participation for an athlete varied considerably for the 125 schools in this study. Suspensions ranged from one week to a half of a school year. Athletes found ineligible had different ways in which to gain their eligibility back again. Twelve schools in the study had weekly grade checks; students who brought their grades up to passing could become eligible in as little as seven days. A large number of the schools (56) imposed academic suspensions of three weeks, fifteen school days, or 21 calendar days; students who were put on probation became eligible at the end of this time period if their grades met the minimal requirements. The schools that had the strictest penalties imposed suspensions that lasted the entire grading period, ranging from six weeks to a full semester. Some innovative ideas on how high schools are dealing with academic suspension include weekly grade checks, having the honor society run a study hall for the athletes, and having coaches coordinating academic study halls for ineligible athletes.

Adherence to State Guidelines

All forty-eight state athletic associations recommended some form of academic eligibility requirements for student participation in interscholastic sports; however, most were very limited. The requirements ranged from just being enrolled in a minimum number of courses, to a combination of a minimum number of courses, no Fs, a minimum grade point average, and an attendance policy. Of the 125 schools included in this study, 75 schools followed the minimum requirement set by their respective state associations while 50 schools exceeded state association criteria. Of the 48 states represented in the study only six recommended or required a minimum grade point average be included as part of the academic criteria for athletic eligibility. In Ohio, association guidelines recommend that individual schools should set their own GPA requirements. In only four states did all high schools in the state follow the rules specifically set up for academic eligibility by the state associations; in all other cases, individual schools developed their own participation policies with varying results in terms of stringency.

Discussion

As this study indicates, only a small percentage of high schools in the United States have attached a minimum GPA to their academic requirements for athletic eligibility. The schools that had minimal standards justified these standards by stating that athletics keep kids in school; if they were not eligible to participate in athletics, these students would drop out of school. Some of the schools in the study indicated that they incorporated a grade point to their eligibility but later removed this criterion from their athletic code because of opposition from coaches and parents. Additional arguments from athletic directors defending low academic requirements included that athletic programs must remain student-friendly and that all students, no matter what their grades, should have the right to participate. A number of athletic directors reported that they would like to have even lower academic requirements than those already in place.

In schools that had strong academic requirements, athletic directors reported students adjusted to the requirements once they were set in place. One athletic director in New Mexico stated that kids know what the minimum grade point average is to be eligible so they will do what is required. In fact, he even thought that they could raise the grade point to 2.5 and the student-athletes would adjust in a matter of time. One high school in Alaska that had a minimum grade point average of 2.5 retained the right to hold an athlete out if the coaches felt that the student-athlete was not performing up to his or her potential, even if the student had a 3.0.

In a time when public school educational programs are under heavy scrutiny, athletic programs with low academic standards are only hurting themselves by letting their athletes just get by. The athletic programs in this study that have challenged their students in the classroom with higher academic standards over a longer period of time have been successful in improving the students’ grade point averages. Students adjusted to the academic demands set by the athletic programs and the number of students that were declared ineligible was consistent with the number that were declared ineligible under the lower academic requirement.

References Cited

Eitzen, S. & Sage, G. (1989) Sociology of North American Sport, 4th edition. Dubuque, Iowa: WM. C. Brown Publishers.

Eitzen, S. & Saga, G. (1993). Sociology of North American Sport, Dubuque,
Iowa:WM. C. Brown Publishers. 4th edition

McGrath, E. (1984). Blowing the whistle on Johnny,@ Time 30 January p. 80.

Richards, D. (1987). No-pass pulse, Dallas Morning News 6 October 1987, pp. B1, B14

Wolf, C. (1983). Playing for keeps, New York Times Magazine, 30 October
1983, pp. 32-53

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-26T22:08:14-06:00February 14th, 2008|Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Magnetic Therapy and Athletic Performance

Submitted by: David Schall and Jimmy H. Ishee

The theory that magnetic therapy could be used to enhance the lives of human beings was formulated in the early 16th century (Ramey, 1998). Since that time it has been suggested that magnetic therapy can be useful in treating many ailments, such as broken bones (Rogachefsky, 1998; Sharrard, 1990), wounds (Lee, Canady, & Doong, 1993; Man, Man, Plosker, Markov, 1997; Szor, 1998), chronic pain (Campbell, 1997; Valbona, Hazelwood & Gabor,1997), and even psychiatric disorders (Baker-Price & Persinger, 1996; George et al., 1997; Kirkcaldie, Pridmore, & Pascual-Leone, 1997). There is limited literature with regard to magnetic therapy and to athletic performance, and mostly in the form of testimonials.

During training and competition two things occur in the muscles. First, they are being torn down and damaged. If muscles are not allowed to rest, larger wounds in the muscle may occur resulting in missed training time, decreased vitality, and reduced performance. Secondly, waste products that lead to a decrease in the supply of oxygen and nutrition to the cells accumulate in the muscle tissue. This also leads to a breakdown in training and performance. Reportly, the constant pulsing of magnets penetrates the body, improving blood circulation that can aid in healing and stimulating metabolism that can lead to the faster removal of waste and an improvement in the cells’ supply of oxygen and nutrients (Case Studies and Testimonials, 1999). Claims are that this regeneration effect leads to safer, quicker recovery after training or competition and increased performance during training and competition. One such testimonial is from Andrew McManus, a professional race car driver, who uses the Quantron Resonance System (QRS). McManus stated that he used the QRS for more than 6 months, both mornings and evenings. Actual strength of the magnets was not mentioned. He reported that the number of injuries that occurred as a result of racing had dropped, and his lower back pain ceased. The general condition of his muscles improved; and his body felt regenerated, enabling him to drive the car faster. Another unexpected benefit was a noticeable improvement in his asthma. His use of medication and the frequency of attacks had diminished, thus enabling a greater training workload. McManus stated that he intends to continue the use of the QRS magnets (Case Studies and Testimonials, 1999). Also described was the AS Roma Football Club, an Italian professional soccer team that used the QRS for two months and experienced positive therapeutic results, especially in recovery from hard training. Dr. E. Allciccio, the team’s physician, noted that the fatigue factor was also lower and recommended the QRS to anyone who participates in sports.

Antonopulos (1999) stated in a testimonial for a popular magnetic company that players on the Denver Broncos of the National Football League are regular users of magnetic products. Antonopulos reported that a number of players have been using the products and have reported positive feelings from them. He mentioned that he personally has found significant results from using the magnetic insoles; they have cured his feelings of tired and sore feet. Antonopulos also stated that a prominent running back, who injured his groin prior to the Super Bowl, was treated with the magnet therapy and was able to prepare and play in the game without problem. Antonopulos believes that magnetic products are a positive aid in enhancing performance and the treatment of injuries, but did not discuss the strength of the magnets.

Jim Colbert, professional golfer on the Senior PGA Tour, stated that he has not missed a day of golf in 3 years. He attributed his longevity to wearing various types of magnets. Donna Andrews, a golfer on the LPGA tour stated that wearing magnets helps her feel and play well. Dan Marino, former quarterback for the Miami Dolphins of the National Football League, stated that magnets had extended his career in professional football (Biomagnetic Testimonials, 1999).

Steizinger, Yerys, Scowcroft, Wygand, and Otto (1999) investigated the effects of repeated magnet treatment on prolonged recovery from exercise-induced delayed onset muscle soreness. Thirteen subjects (mean age = 23.5 years and mean weight = 74.2 kg) performed a 10-minute downhill run on a treadmill at 85% max heart rate and 16% grade to induce muscle soreness. In this double-blind procedure, participants received a randomly assigned magnet (M) or placebo magnet (P) placed 5 cm proximal to the superior patellar border, for two 1-hour sessions interspersed with a 10 minute measurement session. Treatments were administered at 24-, 48-, and 72- hours postexercise. Statistical analysis revealed no significant differences between M and P trials or between presoreness 24-, 48-, and 72- hour measurements. Thus, magnetic therapy at 500 gauss applied for 2 hours per day for 3 days did not alter the normal time course of recovery from exercise-induced muscle soreness. These findings concurred with Ramey (1998) who stated that explanations that magnetic fields increase circulation, reduce inflammation, or speed recovery from injuries are simplistic and unsupported by the weight of experimental evidence.

Whatever the findings or claims, there appears to be no harm from magnetic therapy. This probably makes it attractive to some athletes who are weary of the adverse effects of other products or procedures. The psychological effect of magnetic therapy should also be considered. Future research should shed more light on the effects of magnetic therapy on athletic performance and associated questions.

References

Antonopulos, S. L. (1999, February). Denver Broncos Letter of Testimonial. (Available from Larry Crisp of Preventative Health Care Alliance, 10940 S. Parker Rd., # 426, Parker, CO 80134)
Baker-Price, L. A., & Persinger, M. A. (1996). Weak but complex pulsed magnetic fields may reduce depression following traumatic brain surgery. Perceptual and Motor Skill, 83, 491-498.

Biomagnetic Testimonials. (1999). Magnetic Ideas Inc. Website [On-line].
Available: www.magneticideas.com

Campbell, D. (1997, November 14) New technology relieves chronic pain with magnets. Vanderbilt University Medical Center Reporter, 7, 1,2.

Case Studies and Testimonials. (1999). Quantron Resonance System Website
[On-line]. Available: www.quantronic.com

George, M. S., Wasserman, E. M., Kimbrell, T. A., Little, J. T., Williams, W. E., Danielson, A. L., Greenburg, B. D., Hallert, M., & Post, R. M. (1997). Mood improvement following prefrontal magnetic stimulation in patients with depression: A placebo controlled crossover trial. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 1752-1756.

Kirkcaldie, M. T. K., Pridmore, S. A., & Pascual-Leone, A. (1997). Transcranial magnetic stimulation as therapy for depression and other disorders. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 31, 264-272.

Lee, R. C., Canaday, D. J., & Doong, H. (1993). A review of the biological basis for the clinical application of electrical fields in soft-tissue repair. Journal of Burn Care Rehabilitation, 14, 319-335.

Man, D., Man, B., Plosker, H., & Markov, M. (1997). Effect of permanent magnetic field postoperative pain and wound healing in plastic surgery [Online]. Available: www.tectonic.com

Ramey, D. W. (1998). Magnetic and electromagnetic therapy. The Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine, 1, 1-16.

Rogachefsky, R. (1998). Use of tectonic magnet for treatment of hand after gun shot [Online]. Available: www.tectonic.com

Sharrard, W. J. W. (1990). A double-blind trial of pulsed electromagnetic fields for delayed union of tibial fractures. British Journal of Bone Joint Surgery, 72B, 347-355.

Steizinger, C., Yerys, S., Scowcroft, N., Wygand, J., & Otto, R. M. (1999). The effects of repeated magnet treatment on prolonged recovery from exercise induced delayed onset muscle soreness. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise Abstracts, 31, 963.

Szor, J. K. (1998). Use of magnetic therapy on an abdominal wound: A case study. Ostomy Wound Manage, 44, 24-29.

Valbona, C., Hazelwood, C. F., & Gabor, J. (1997). Response of pain to static magnetic fields in postpolio patients: A double-blind pilot study. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 78, 1200-1203.

U.S. Sports Academy2015-11-08T07:39:31-06:00February 14th, 2008|Sports Exercise Science, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Slim Enough to Swim? Weight Pressures for Competitive Swimmers and Coaching Implications

Submitted by: Justine J. Reel, Ph.D. and Diane L. Gill, Ph.D.

Swimmers found themselves in the spotlight at the 2000 Sydney Olympics and in the scrutiny of spectators and sport researchers alike. An attempt is often made to determine what the athlete is feeling behind the scenes and this article will focus on body weight concerns among swimmers. While sports such as gymnastics (Conviser, Fitzgibbon, & Kahn, 2000) and figure skating (Smith, 1997; Ryan, 1995) have been consistently labeled “leanness-demand” sports, the weight-related pressures for swimmers have been less clear. Benson and Taub (1993) reported that swimmers feel pressure to drop weight, “Swimmers may be especially vulnerable to disordered eating due to the display of their bodies in a tight and revealing team uniform” (p. 360).

Thompson and Sherman (1993) hypothesized that swimmers face unique pressures to lose weight in their sport. While the revealing team uniform has been reported by cheerleaders (Reel & Gill, 1998), for swimming there is the additional pressure that comes with the perception held by many top swim coaches that lower body weight and body fat improves swimming times. Thorton (1990) demonstrated that Olympic females were told to lose weight and body fat to cut times. “When freestyler Tiffany Cohen won her Olympic medals, her body fat was 22%. That percentage is considerably above the 15% that many coaches routinely advocate as an upper-end cutoff for elite female swimmers” (p. 120).

This study has the following purposes: (1) To identify most frequently reported weight-related stressors in swimming; (2) To examine the prevalence of weight concerns among female swimmers; and (3) To determine whether body concerns/stressors in swimming are related to social physique anxiety.

Method

Participants

Sixty-two female swimmers from 7 college swim teams participated. Swimmers weighed 99 to 190 pounds (M =134.21). Most swimmers reported wanting to lose weight (M=7.56 pounds), with one swimmer wanting to drop 37 pounds.

Measures

The Weight Pressures in Swimming (WPS) inventory was patterned after Reel & Gill’s (1996) CHEER instrument that measured weight pressures in cheerleading. Internal consistency for all 10 items was low, which resulted in dropping detracting items to obtain a stronger and more reliable measure (alpha=.71 )

The Social Physique Anxiety Scale (SPAS), a 12-item self-report measure developed by Hart, Leary and Rejeski (1989), measures one’s degree of social physique anxiety which has been defined as the degree of anxiety one experiences when presenting one’s body to others. Internal consistency for SPAS has been reported (alpha=.90) and validity has been supported by the moderate correlation of SPAS to other measures.

Results

Over half (51.6%) of swimmers agreed with the statement, “There are weight pressures in swimming.” Most frequently reported weight stressors were as follows: the revealing team uniform (swim suit) – 45.2%; the perception that lower weight helps swim performance (42%); teammates noticing weight (16.1%); crowd scrutinizing body (12.9%); and the feeling that the lightest swimmers have a performance advantage (9.7%). Positive responses to WPS are provided in Table 1.

Table 1. Positive Responses to WPS

WPS Items	Strongly Agree/Agree %
My team has a try-out weight requirement.	1.6% (1)
Swim team should have a weight limit.	4.8% (3)
My swim performance would improve if I lost at least 5 pounds.	42% (26)
My team members notice if I put on weight.	16.1% (10)
My coach encourages swimmers to lose weight.	0% (0)
My team participates in weight training.	59.7% (37)
Lightest swimmers are at a performance advantage	9.7% (6)
My team swim suit makes me conscious of my bodily appearance.	45.2% (28)*
Weigh-ins are held throughout the season.	3.2%
The crowd scrutinizes my body and makes me concerned about weight and appearance.	12.9% (8)

Scores on SPAS ranged from very low (16) to very high (58 out of a possible 60). The mean score (M = 33.8, SD = 9.87) for the swimmers fell in the healthy (low SPAS) range. However, 16 female swimmers scored in the high SPAS range. Pearson correlational analyses revealed a moderate correlation (r=.51) between total WPS and SPAS scores, suggesting that weight concerns specific to swimming were related to body image. SPAS was also logically related to some individual items of WPS, including crowd stressor (r=.46), performance stressor (r=.42), teammate stressor (r=.27), and swim suit stressor (r=.26).

Discussion

Clearly, some swimmers are experiencing weight-related stressors in the competitive swimming environment. While the uniform and performance pressures were frequently cited, other stressors (e.g., crowd, teammates) were also reported. Interestingly, although competitive suits are typically one-piece styles, participants reported that suits are ordered in much smaller sizes to encourage a streamlining effect. Therefore, competitive swimmers often wear swimsuits that are 2 or more sizes smaller than their typical size, and in some cases youth sizes are worn to prevent drag. The beliefs that decreased weight and body fat are associated with increased performance are widespread. Unfortunately these beliefs are learned by young swimmers who preach them when they become coaches. Although many swimmers seem able to cope with the pressure to lose weight, some swimmers with high levels of social physique anxiety seemed to be “at-risk” for disordered eating.

Coaching Implications

Coaches may benefit from an awareness of weight-related pressures for competitive swimmers. It is important to understand that while swimmers may become more comfortable than the general public about wearing swim suits, that they may experience the stress associated with wearing very small and revealing suits for competitive purposes. More importantly, swim coaches need to be aware that while many swimmers may have healthy body image, there may be some swimmers that have highly negative feelings toward their body. It is anticipated that their negative self-thoughts may impact swim performance and attitudes toward competitive swim participation. A summary of coaching strategies for preventing weight stressors from occurring among competitive swimmers is provided in Appendix A.

Future research in this area should focus on coaching attitudes about body weight and swim performance. With the advent of the new Fast-skin suits, researchers should observe whether there are changes in weight-related attitudes. Weight-related stressors among male and female swimmers in Division I schools, Olympic swimmers, and youth swimmers should be explored in depth. It is clear that there are pressures related to body weight for collegiate female swimmers as outlined by one swimmer:

I cannot be as competitive because of my heavier bone structure. Going faster is easier for lighter people. Everyone changes in the dressing room together and the dressing room has a scale. Everyone on the team is always prone to gossip if there is anyone who is especially overweight or to compare themselves to the “skinny” people on the team.

References

Benson, R., & Taub, D.E. (1993). Using the PRECEDE model for causal analysis of bulimic tendencies among elite women swimmers. Journal of Health Education, 24(6), 360-368.

Conviser, J., Fitzgibbon, M., & Kahn, S. (2000). NCAA female gymnasts and eating disorders: A coach=s perspective. Paper presented at the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology Conference. Nashville, TN.
Hart, E., Leary, M.R., & Rejeski, W.J. (1989). The measurement of social physique anxiety. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 11, 94-104.

Reel, J.J., & Gill, D.L. (1996). Psychosocial factors related to eating disorders among high school and college female cheerleaders. The Sport Psychologist, 10, 195-206.

Reel, J.J., & Gill, D.L. (1998). Weight concerns and disordered eating attitudes among male and female college cheerleaders. Women in Sport & Physical Activity Journal, 7(2), 79-94.

Ryan, J. (1995). Little girls in pretty boxes: The making and breaking of elite gymnasts and figure skaters. New York: Doubleday.
Smith, B. (1997). Behind the scenes of the world=s most glamorous sport: Talking figure skating. Toronto, Ontario: McClelland & Stewart.

Thompson, R.A., & Sherman, R.T. (1993). Helping athletes with eating disorders. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Thorton, J.S. (1990). Feast or Famine: Eating disorders in athletes. The Physician and Sportsmedicine, 18(4), 116-122.

Appendix A

Coaching Strategies

Eliminate weight requirements and weight-related goal-setting.
Avoid group weigh-ins.
Allow team members to choose team suit whenever possible.
Educate swimmers about muscle weighing more than fat.
Encourage swimmers to meet caloric intake needs.
Discourage team members from making weight-related comments to other swimmers.
Evaluate your beliefs about weight-performance relationship.
Monitor swimmers’ eating behavior/body concerns and look for “at-risk” swimmers.
Listen to swimmers’ concerns about weight and body.
Encourage “at-risk” swimmers to keep a food log to ensure adequate caloric intake.
Develop a referral network at your university or in your community so that
you can refer an athlete as needed
Watch comments that suggest swimmers should drop weight to cut times

Author’s Note:

For editorial correspondence:
Justine Reel, Ph.D.
2312 Woodview Way
Malvern, PA 19355
Phone/Fax: 610-436-2148
jreel@wcupa.edu

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-26T22:16:12-06:00February 14th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Editorial Comment – Reach out for “Olympism”

Submitted by: Dr. Richard Bell, Ed.D.

“The important thing in the Olympic Games is not to win, but to take part, just as the important thing in life is not the triumph, but the struggle; the essential thing is not to have conquered, but to have fought well.”
Baron Pierre de Coubertin – founder of the modern Olympic Games.

Olympism is a word foreign to most of us but familiar in its concept. You do not have to be an Olympic athlete to have Olympism. Olympism is about the pride in yourself gained through the glory of participation and the quest for achievement. The five ideals that should guide your life are embodied in the concept of Olympism: Vision, Focus, Commitment, Persistence and Discipline. Olympism is being the best you can be and gaining life’s tools to build self-confidence, self-esteem, personal effectiveness and the spirit of adventure.

We should reach out for Olympism. Embrace those ideals that Olympism represents. These ideals have lapsed from our consciousness and need revival. After over a century of the modern Olympic Games and the associated competition and sportsmanship the United States Olympic Academy is seeking to inspire all of us to accept these ideals.

Life can be difficult and the lessons of Olympism — Vision, Focus, Commitment, Persistence and Discipline — can help us overcome its obstacles. Sport can be a vehicle that instills the timeless values learned from participating and striving for a goal. Today’s youth needs strong values because the obstacles seem to be harder than in earlier times. The choices along the path of life today are many. Olympism can provide guidance and insight to young people to make the right choices with confidence. Olympism is the choice to participate and to make the best effort with the knowledge that you have given everything. We should encourage our young people to participate in life using the ideals learned through Olympism as a model. Whether in sports, music, academics we should instill the lesson that if you participate you win.

U.S. Sports Academy2015-11-08T07:39:22-06:00February 14th, 2008|Sports History, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off