Contemporary Sports Issues – Page 59

British Soccer Superhooligans: Emergence and Establishment: 1982-2000

Submitted by:

By
defining match days and football grounds as times and places
in which fighting could be engaged in and aggressive forms
of masculinity displayed, the media, especially the national
tabloid press, played a part of some moment in stimulating
and shaping the development of soccer hooliganism (p. 122).

Murphy et al., (1990), believe that the amount of publicity
given to the superhooligan groups and their leaders increased
the membership ranks with “hardcases and other socio-pathic
nutters” (Murphy et al., 1990, p. 168), who were not
previously involved with soccer hooliganism.

The
media was not only engaged in reporting and predicting soccer
superhooliganism, but it also led the call for remedial action
against the soccer thugs. However, the media-advocated policy
measures introduced to combat soccer superhooliganism “tended
to displace the disorder on to the streets outside football
grounds, sometimes at considerable distances from them, rather
than to eradicate it” (Murphy et al., 1990, p. 122).

Involvement
by the media in soccer hooliganism included publishing their
own ‘league tables of hooligan notoriety.’ The Daily
Mail September, 1986, ran a headline, “Chelsea tops thugs
league” Murphy (1990), or, the Evening Standard had a
center spread page on July 29, 1985, which read, “London
league of violence” Murphy et al., (1990). The impact
these articles have had on the reader depends on individual
motivations. Superhooligans view the publicity as validating
their activity. When an article is published, identifying
the Chelsea Headhunters as the top superhooligan group, other
superhooligans view this as a challenge to knock Chelsea off
of the top spot.

The
root causes of present-day soccer superhooliganism are deep
and complex. Newspapers, in particular the tabloid press,
“have made a contribution of some significance to the
rise of present-day hooliganism and to giving it its distinctively
contemporary form” (Murphy et al., 1990, p. 124). Articles
featuring stories on superhooligan group leaders, although
not necessarily condoning them, rarely condemned their activities
either. The press undoubtedly contributed to the “intensification
of the status competition between rival hooligan groups”
(Murphy et al., 1990, p. 124), and the tabloid press has been
responsible for feature stories portraying superhooligan leaders
as prosperous and from middle class backgrounds. Exaggeration
on the part of the press, according to Canter (1989), further
sensationalized the leaders concerned, which consequently
attracted to superhooliganism some ‘non-typical’ hooligan
types. That the popular press is responsible for aiding and
abetting the soccer superhooliganism phenomenon by its extensive
and sensationalized coverage is patently obvious. The press
could have played a key role in diffusing the soccer hooligan
movement during its early stages – but it chose instead to
use hooliganism to sell papers and, consequently, led in the
emergence and establishment of Britian’s soccer super-hooligans.

References

Buford,
B. (1991). Among the thugs. London: Seker and Warburg.

Canter,
D., Comber, M., and Uzzell, D. (1989). Football in its place:
an environmental psychology of football grounds. London: Routledge.

Cohen,
P. (1988). Policing the working class city, in Capitalism
and the rule of law. London: Hutchinson, pps. 118-36.

Dunning,
E. (1994). The Social Roots of football Hooliganism: A reply
to the Critics of “The Leicester School,” in N.
Bonney, R. Giulanotti, M. Hepworth (eds), Football, violence
and social identity. Routledge, London.

Dunning,
E., Murphy, P. and Williams, J. (1986). Spectator violence
at football matches: towards a sociological explanation. British
Journal of Sociology, 37, (2).

Dunning,
E., Murphy, P. and Williams, J. (1988). The roots of football
hooliganism. London: Routledge.

Harrington,
J. (1968). Soccer hooliganism. Bristol: John Wright.

Keating,
F. (1985, August 16). Fans who get their kicks off the field.
The Guardian.

Keel,
P. (1987, January 8). Slashed fan identified mob boss, court
told. The Guardian.

Kerr,
J. H. (1994). Understanding soccer hooliganism. Milton Keynes:
Open University Press.

Murphy,
P., Williams, J., & Dunning, E. (1990). Football on trial:
spectator violence and development in the football world.
London: Routledge.

Pearson,
G. (1983). Hooligan: a history of respectable fears. Basingstoke:
Macmillan.

Popplewell,
O. (1986). Committee of enquiry into crowd safety and control
at sports grounds. Final report. London: HMSO, 6.

Robins,
D. (1984). We hate humans. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Taylor,
I., & Ingham, R. (Eds) (1978). Football hooliganism: the
wider context. London: Inter-Action.

Taylor,
I. (1988). British soccer after Brussels. Sociology of Sport
Journal No. 4, pps. 171-91.

Taylor,
R. (1993). Football and its fans: supporters and their relations
with the game, 1885-1985. Leicester: Leicester University
Press.

Trivizas,
E. 1980. Offences and offenders in football crowd disorders.
British Journal of Criminology, 20, (3).

Van
Limbergen, K., & Walgrave, L. (1988). ‘Euro’ 88:
Fans and hooligans. Youth criminology research group report
commissioned by the Belgian minister of interior.

Wagg,
S. (1984). The football world: a contemporary social history.
Brighton: Harvester Press.

Walvin,
J. (1986). Football and the decline of Britain. London: Macmillan
Press Ltd.

Walvin,
J. (1994). The people’s game: the history of football revisited.
London: Mainstream Publishing.

Ward,
C. (1996). All quiet on the hooligan front. Edinburgh: Mainstream.

Williams,
J., & Wagg, S. (Eds) (1991). British football and social
change: getting into Europe.

Leicester:
Leicester University Press.

Williams,
J., Dunning, E., & Murphy, P. J. (1984). Hooligans abroad:
the behavior and control of English fans in continental Europe.
London: Routledge and Keegan Paul.

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-26T21:53:54-06:00February 14th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Information Technology for Sports Management

Submitted by: Dr. T.J. Rosandich

Introduction

This article will address the topic of information technology for sports management and will attempt to provide an overview of how information technology (called IT) is changing the nature of management practices in sport. The discussion of IT applications in the profession can be done in a few broad areas:

1st How the tools of today’s “technological revolution” can be applied to the administration of sport.

2nd How developments such as the Internet and world wide web help in specific management functions such as training and marketing

3rd How e-commerce can make participation in sports more available through lower priced equipment and lastly,

4th The digital divide: and underlying condition that keeps some from participating fully in the benefits in the IT revolution.

The Technological Revolution

We are living in the midst of one of those very unusual occurrences that come along once every few generations: a society wide paradigm shift. The close of the last millennium has seen a fundamental change that is moving society the age of industry to the age of information. The currency in this new society that is being formed is information and the medium of exchange is called IT (and sometimes computer technology – CT). IT is simply the tools and methods used for the identification, organization and manipulation of facts that we call data. IT has become the engine that is driving all sectors of today’s economy be it industry, government, education or indeed, sports.

The most important piece of equipment that lies at the heart of the whole IT process is the computer. The computer and the software that it runs is an essential element in the new societal paradigm and it is a key to success for the modern sports manager. It is THE piece of equipment that allows the sports administrator to maximize the return on scarce resources whether this is people, facilities and equipment or finances. In turn, it is also perhaps the single most important tool to the sports administrator to extend the reach of sport and recreational programming to as many potential participants as possible.

Just as money has been the currency and a source of power in the old paradigm, information is the currency and a source of power in the new paradigm. No where is the old saying “that knowledge is power” more true than in a society where information or data is the force that drives the new economy. The secret to managing knowledge and information is in the development and maintenance of computer databases.

A database is nothing more than an organized collection of common records that can be searched, accessed and modified. Database software is very widespread as most standard office computer software packages will typically have a simple database program in addition to word processing, spreadsheet and presentation applications.

There is, however, a far more powerful and useful kind of database for sport managers than the one that comes in the standard software suite: the relational database. A relational database is a data management system that stores information in a series of tables consisting of rows and columns of data. When the operator conducts a search, a relational database allows the individual to match data from one table with data from a second to produce a third table or a report.

An illustrative example is that of an individual charged with overseeing a complex sports competition, the details of which have been entered into a relational database. The time for a scheduled event can be pulled from one table, a roster that has the names of qualified referees who can officiate the event from another table, their availability from a third table resulting in a report that lists all of the personnel who can undertake the officiating task at the appointed place at the appointed time. This task which could take hours of manual manipulation from paper records can be done in a fraction of the time from digital records. Similar event management software can assist the sports manager with a myriad of other tasks associated with the competition ranging from facility scheduling, equipment set up and knock-down, or even ordering soft drinks for the concession stand.

From the foregoing the value of using IT tools can be readily seen for the organization of a competition. These tools are even more important for the day-to-day operation of the sport organization as can be seen by the kinds of sport program information that can be contained within these databases:

First are athlete specific information such as team rosters that include biographic information including name, sex, age, contact information and even clothing sizes for team uniforms. The same database may also contain details on medical conditions, performance history, or other participation characteristics of the athletes.

Another common use is the development of rosters of program support personnel such as officials, timekeepers, drivers, or medical staff. Aside from details such as their addresses, a database of this type might also contain information about availability and reliability. For example, do they actually show up when they volunteer?

Money is always an issue for today’s sport management professional. Databases are particularly useful for tracking donors or potential donors whether and they contribute money or in-kind services. In addition to the expected biographic information will be other keys to successful fund rasing such as the source of their motivation or affiliation and the frequency with which they give.

Databases are also essential for other types of administrative information. Examples include accounting and business records, employee files, equipment inventories or facility maintenance records. The organizational marketing information system (MIS) is also typically a database program in which are tracked information such as season ticket sales, gate receipts or merchandising sales. It is particularly useful if different software applications interface with each other seamlessly which is to say, “do the programs talk to each other?” Can, for example, the data entered in the MIS resulting from ticket sales be imported directly to the accounting program?

To be effective, databases can and should be regularly updated to record changes. Bear in mind that the passage of time presents a more comprehensive picture of most activities and the ability to record change and make sense of it is essential for long term survival. Further, there is nothing so constant as change, particularly in sports organizations, and a well thought out and maintained database is a great way to develop and maintain an “institutional memory”; a record of those changes and the impact they have had on the organization.

As great as databases are for effective sport program management, the real power of information technology comes when individual computers are tied together through the medium of a network. This is truly a case where there are synergies created as in 2 + 2 = 6. A computer network simply is the hardware and software required to connect two or more machines together so to allow the sharing of data and other resources. Most larger enterprises, use computer networks to link together their operatives in a common computing environment. All of the permeations and configurations available to the sports administrator are clearly beyond the scope of this presentation except to note that the most common configuration of these kinds of networks are of the client – server variety. This type of network is has a main server that houses most of the information and database files. The individual operatives access the server through their desktop terminals or workstations which are called clients.

Aside from sharing data, a network can share other resources as well. For example, a network can have any number of computers sharing a very good quality printer instead of a using a number of mediocre workstation printers. A powerful server can substantially increase computing speed and effectiveness throughout an organization. So what are the key issues to be addressed when considering the acquisition and implementation of an organizational IT system?

First and foremost, once the decision is made to introduce IT systems to the organization, the table of organization and staffing patterns will need to change. The new IT system cannot simply be “layered on” to the existing structure; it must be imbedded into the organizational processes. The adoption of a IT strategy and associated changes in procedures usually means extensive training for the staff.

The next consideration is that of hardware. What is the computer system configuration and computing capacity that the organization will need? Capacity should not be underestimated as a relational database can consume huge amounts of memory. So do other strategies that enhance organizational effectiveness such as moving data files off the hard drives of individual work stations and onto a file server on a computer network.

Another crucial decision revolves around operating software. Standard vendor prepared software packages are usually developed on the basis of the lowest common denominator for a group of potential clients. It is not uncommon that only about 80% of an organization’s needs are met by an off-the-shelf product. So the sport administrator is left with the choice of writing their own software programs or adapting organizational operating procedures to some degree around the software package. The former can be hugely time consuming, very expensive and the end result is not always assured. Generally, the more extensive the modification required for a software product, the more expensive the product becomes and the more difficult it will be to accommodate software upgrades from the vendor.

The Internet

It is important to note that computer networks need not be limited to a single site or facility. Wide Area Networks (WANs) can link together sports administrators located throughout a country. For example, all of the regional offices of a national sports governing body such as the National Football Association can be linked together regardless of their geographic location. All of the operatives so linked can share administrative and programming information and communicate with each other cheaply and efficiently through the medium of e-mail.

The computer network with which the public is most familiar is the Internet and the World – Wide – Web, known simply as “the Web”, is what most people think of when we say the “the Internet”. While the Internet has been around for decades going all the way back to ARPAnet in the 1960s, the Web is a comparatively new innovation first introduced in the mid 1990s. It is a digital medium which presents information in text, audio and graphics in a simple hyper-text computer language readable by a browser. This medium has simply exploded and today there are more than 15 million web addresses called Uniform Resource Locators (URLs), many with hundreds of individual pages on their sites. Thousands or applications for new URLs are received every week.

The ways that the Web has changed society are almost too numerous to mention. Suffice to say it has become an extremely important medium of communication, education and commerce and its importance in these areas will only continue to grow in the future. In terms of communication, for example, USA Today which is the closest thing a national newspaper in America, gets more than three million visits per day. Some 60% of these visits are to its sports pages. In terms of education, the concept of “distributed learning” or “distance education” gains more adherents with every passing day. Through the U.S. Sports Academy, for example, one can do the entire course of study for an accredited Master of Sport Science degree through the Web without leaving their home. The same possibilities exist at the undergraduate level through the International Sports Academy.

But most significant at this juncture is the marketing and commerce applications of the web. There are virtually no professional sports teams in the United States that do not have a Website and most are linked together through networks of Websites coordinated through the various league offices. Just how tight these linkages are is driven in part by agreements between the league teams on activities such as revenue sharing for media broadcasting rights and merchandise sales.

The Web is currently used by professional sports teams in ways that the developers of this technology never envisioned. For example, there are no English language radio broadcasts in Montreal for the Montreal Expos professional baseball team. Fans wanting hear the play-by-play in English can only do so by calling up the team’s Website and listen to it coming across as an audio feed. Another example of how deeply the Internet has penetrated professional sports is how some pro hockey teams now require their players to have e-mail addresses as a means to interact with both the team administration and their fans.

These examples lie at the heart of how the Internet will affect sports in the future: through the changing of the way that the sports fan will consume the sport product. Where in its infancy sport marketing did not extend much beyond putting out a sign on the side walk saying “Game Today”, now sports teams have well developed and extensive Websites to more effectively market to their customers. The trend in this regard is also clear. What will emerge is networks of teams and users bound together by a common interest and driven in part by advances in information technology.

These developments are not limited to the upper end of the sports hierarchy. Compared to the extremely high cost of traditional television broadcast, the comparatively low cost of “webcasting” will bring to sports fans events that could never before be seen on traditional broadcast media. A simple example of how this can occur is an annual sailboat race from Mobile to Tampico across the Gulf of Mexico. Last summer the skipper of a local boat participating in the event took photos every four hours with a digital camera of the race activities and uplinked them by a satellite phone to his own website. Thus his friends in the community, or anyone else in the world who stumbled onto the website, could participate in this event as they never could before. Sports events of a distinctly local flavor without the mass appeal that make them economical for television broadcast can so be distributed through the web to anyone with an interest. The web is not constrained by the limited availability of broadcast channels and high production costs. And while bandwidth is currently an issue for the web, this will resolve itself in the near future with the introduction of broadband technologies.
E-Commerce

It is also appropriate to briefly examine how the web will change the sale and distribution of sporting goods which is central to running sport programs. The relative cost for sports equipment can be an issue for the profession, particularly in terms of trying to broaden the appeal of sport to the greatest number of participants. E-commerce through the Internet holds the potential for containing costs for sports equipment as illustrated by the following example.

In the traditional model of manufacture and distribution through a sporting goods store, it is not uncommon for a tennis racquet which cost $40 to manufacture to be marked up as much as 300 to 400% to as much as $160 as it moves through various wholesalers and retailers in the distribution chain to a tennis player. With an e-commerce arrangement whereby the manufacturer can reach the player directly without going through middlemen, the mark-up in distribution can be reduced to as little as 50% of the traditional retail price resulting in a sale price to the end user of about $80. Very simply, the more middle men in a distribution chain, the greater the benefit derived to the end user from using e-commerce distribution.

E-commerce is well on its way to becoming a force in the world economy as it serves to remove barriers both natural and artificial. The barriers that will vanish include those of time and space as well as national borders both physical and ideological. That this will occur is underscored by the fact that this year e-commerce will employ more than 2 million people and create a turnover in excess of $500 billion. By next year, the turn over is expected to pass $1 trillion.

The Digital Divide

In closing I would be remiss if I didn’t call attention to one important problem: technological tools can be expensive, which has resulted in what we call in the United States the “Digital Divide”. In the U.S., approximately 60% of American adults are connected to the Internet and are on-line. These users are largely from the upper and middle class and have the financial wherewithal to purchase computers and Internet services. It is a matter of great concern that the very people who stand to benefit the most from economies to be realized through information technology as outlined earlier in my discussion on e-commerce are the ones least able to afford it. It is the economically disadvantaged that are currently being left out of the IT revolution.

This Digital Divide also transcends national borders. While 60% of American adults are connected to the Internet, only about 5% of the global population can make that claim. Some areas, Africa for example, are almost totally disconnected and can only be considered disadvantaged as a result. Herein lies the challenge for the future.

IT applications in sports management is dramatically changing the way that we do business. Thinking through how we can use this kind of equipment and these tools greatly enhances outcomes. The bottom line is that these IT tools are rapidly becoming a necessity for the sports administrator at whatever level in the sports hierarchy they are working.

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-26T22:07:33-06:00February 14th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Management|Comments Off

The PGA Tour vs. Casey Martin

Submitted by: Wes Johnson

This paper analyzes the public relations aspects of the case – The PGA Tour vs. Casey Martin. Casey Martin sued the PGA Tour over the right to use a riding cart during PGA events. The recent court rulings are discussed as well as the current appeal by the PGA Tour to the Supreme Court. Also examined are the reasons why Casey Martin took the PGA to court. Opinions of Jack Nicklaus, Arnold Palmer, and PGA Tour Commissioner, Tim Finchem are presented. The positive and negative public relations issues of three famous Stanford golfers are discussed: Casey Martin, Tiger Woods, and Notah Begay III. Finally, the paper concludes by explaining how the PGA Tour and Casey Martin should resolve the case.

The popularity of golf in the United States and the world is at an all time high. Tiger Woods is a household name. He is reaching the same popularity level across the globe that only Michael Jordan has. New golf courses are popping up everywhere. Young boys and girls are now playing golf instead of the other major sports such as baseball, softball, basketball, and football. It is no longer frowned upon to focus on golf in high school. During this boom in popularity, a major public relations issue involving the tradition of the game has come to the forefront. In fact, it is going all the way to the Supreme Court. The issue is the ability to ride a cart in professional PGA tour events. The player in the midst of this huge controversy is Casey Martin.

Casey Martin – History of the Case

Casey Martin was born June 2, 1972, in Eugene, Oregon with a birth defect. The birth defect in his right leg is known as Klippel-Trenaunay-Weber Syndrome. In order to walk, Casey has to wear a strong support stocking to keep the swelling down. The defect is a congenital circulatory condition in his lower right leg. His right leg is two sizes too small and his doctors tell him there is a good chance he will lose the leg in the near future. His orthopedist, Dr. Don Jones said, “He has a grossly abnormal vascular system of the lower extremity and, with that, erosion of the bone and chronic pain.”(Reilly, 1998) The doctor is still hopeful that they can find something that will make Martin more comfortable and prolong the life of the leg. Martin prefers not to talk about the pain, but admits it is a day to day thing. He continues to encounter sharp pains, aches, and throbs in the leg. Anything could and may happen that could force his balsa tibia to snap. If this happens, his leg will have to come off. “I only have so many steps left in it,” Martin says.(Charles, 1998) This is why Casey Martin has been in a battle with the PGA Tour since 1997. He knows his pro career could come to a grinding halt any day. If he has to walk the course instead of ride, the end could come very quickly.

The debate started in December of 1997. Casey wanted to use a cart in the PGA Tour qualifier in Haines City, Florida. If he finished as one of the top 38 golfers, he would earn his tour card for the coming year. He was granted a temporary injunction that allowed him to ride a cart in the event. Unfortunately, his six round score of 425 was not good enough for him to finish in the top 38.
In 1998, the federal district courts again ruled in favor of Martin. The PGA was ordered to allow him to use a golf cart in its championship tournaments, in contradiction to its existing rules. The PGA Tour appealed that decision as well. In March of 2000, the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals held that the Americans with Disabilities Act requires the tour to make an exception to its walking only rule.(Curtis, 2000) The tour must allow Martin to use a motorized cart during competition. After the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals ruled in favor of Martin, the PGA Tour decided to take the issue to the Supreme Court.

The PGA Tour applied on May 15, 2000 for the U.S. Supreme Court to extend its deadline for its appeal of the lower court decision. The decision has allowed Casey Martin for the time to use a golf cart during tour events. When representatives of the PGA asked for the extension, they went to Justice Sandra Day O’Connor, who pushed back the deadline by thirty days to July 5, 2000. This extension gave the tour extra time to ready its argument in the event the Supreme Court would hear the Martin case. It seems ironic that the PGA Tour chose Justice O’Connor to extend the deadline. O’Connor is an avid golfer and a member of the exclusive Chevy Chase Maryland Club. One of the PGA Tour’s lawyers, Richard Taranto, is also a former clerk of O’Connor.(Reilly, 2000) At the current date, the fate of Casey Martin is still sitting in the hands of the Supreme Court.

Title III of the Americans with Disabilities Act

Casey Martin’s previous cases and current appeal fall under Title III of the Americans with Disabilities Act. Title III prohibits discrimination in “public accommodations,” a term which covers a wide range of facilities, institutions, and organized activities.(Silvers and Wasserman, 2000) One of the main points that was brought up in lower court rulings and will continue to be is the walking rule that the PGA Tour has in place. The PGA rules clearly state that golfers are to walk the course. Many players regard that as a huge challenge in hot and humid conditions, as well as hilly terrain. But, walking has no other part in the competition. Golfers do not receive lower scores for faster walking, and no minimum pace or time is specified. Although, there are occasions where marshals ask players to pick up the pace. In 1998, the federal district courts addressed this important issue under Title III, “Was the proposed exception a reasonable modification, or would it fundamentally alter the nature of the activity in question?”

In enacting the ADA, Congress found that people with disabilities had been denied “the opportunity to compete on an equal basis” by pervasive discrimination, involving not only “outright intentional exclusion,” but also “architectural, transportation, and communication barriers.”(Silvers and Wasserman, 2000a) The Congress also found exclusionary qualification standards and criteria and the failure to make modifications to existing facilities and practices. The ADA treats discrimination against people with disabilities as a sin of omission and failure to remove barriers and make reasonable changes. The interpretation of Title III of the Americans with Disabilities Act by the Supreme Court will play a major role in this landmark case.

The Stance of the PGA Tour

The PGA Tour has taken some hits to its public image during this three-year ordeal, but has not sustained any fatal blows. In 1997, the public outcry was enormous against the tour. Many saw the PGA Tour as being elitist and unsympathetic to a person born with a handicap. Many media and fans followed Casey Martin during his first PGA event in January of 2000, but interest in him and the case have steadily diminished. The main reason seems to be, out of sight, out of mind. Martin’s best finish this year is seventeenth. Therefore, he hasn’t been on television much at all on Saturday or Sunday since he hasn’t been in contention. That appears to be fine with the PGA Tour. The less Casey is out of the public eye, the better for the PGA. The PGA Tour is just hoping the Supreme Court rules in their favor later this year.

The PGA has taken a firm stance on this issue. Tim Finchem, PGA Tour commissioner, says there are two main issues in the Casey Martin case. First, “The Tour should always have the ability to make its own rules and regulations. Second, walking is an integral part of the game and shouldn’t be lost.”(Strange, 1998) All of today’s top players seem to be in agreement with their commissioner. Even Tiger Woods, who considers Casey Martin a good friend, doesn’t believe Martin should ride a cart. Woods and Martin were on the same team at Stanford University. Tiger’s opinions about Martin haven’t grabbed much attention and nothing seems to be getting in the way of Tiger’s Jordan-like popularity.

Two of the most famous names in golf are also very adamant on this issue. Arnold Palmer has given a deposition on behalf of the PGA saying that using a cart could, under some circumstances, provide a competitive advantage. Yet, Arnie rode a cart in one event on the Senior Tour last year. Jack Nicklaus has also told the PGA Tour that he is willing to speak on its behalf if it would help the cause. Other top golfers seem to avoid the topic at all costs. Davis Love III has made the words “no comment” an art form in his press conferences. Tiger Woods, Nicklaus, and Palmer appear to have images that are untouchable, but the second tier players have more to lose as far as their image and potential endorsements. The second tier players often make as much or more in endorsements than they do from playing the tour itself.

One of the PGA Tour’s most outspoken players is Curtis Strange, who is also a commentator for ABC Sports. Strange contends that we all must rule with our heads in this case and not our hearts. His main contention, like many others, is that golf is a walking game. By allowing Casey to ride a cart would be destroying the traditions of the game. He contends that fitness and stamina are an important part of the game of golf. Strange’s main assertion is that by making an exception to the tour’s walking-only rule, it would change the nature of the game and under certain conditions, give Martin an unfair advantage over the rest of the field.(Strange, 1998) Strange does admit, though, that one of the problems with the tour’s defense is that players on the Senior PGA Tour are allowed to ride carts. Players are also allowed to ride for the first two stages of the qualifying tournament for the PGA Tour.

With all this said, the PGA’s policy and stance are not consistent. If walking is essential to the tradition of the game, why are carts allowed on the Senior PGA Tour and the Q school? Even at one of the tour’s most famous courses, the TPC at Sawgrass, golfers are required to ride golf carts. In today’s golf world, many golfers have never walked 18 holes in their life. If walking is such a tradition, why do club professionals not push this aspect of the game more? Carts speed up the game tremendously, and therefore provide more revenue for the courses. The decision to use carts on public and private courses is money driven, pure and simple.

The Stanford Connection

Let’s look at three of the most famous golfers that Stanford has produced, and their public relations impact on the game of golf. Casey Martin and Notah Begay III redshirted during their junior year in 1992-1993, primarily to get the bulk of their schoolwork out of the way, so they would have more time for golf as fifth-year seniors. But their main motivation was getting to play with Tiger Woods if he enrolled in the fall of 1994. The year before Woods arrived, the Stanford team had their best year ever by winning the NCAA Championship. The first year Tiger was there, Stanford didn’t win the championship, but defeated all its opponents during the regular season. According to Coach Wally Goodwin, the Stanford team beat Oklahoma State by 50 strokes during one tournament, but ended up losing the championship to Oklahoma State in a playoff.

Notah Begay III, currently has a very positive image, but has created both good and bad publicity for the tour over the last two years. Notah is the only Native American on tour in the United States, and has been featured in numerous television and magazine articles. On November 12, 1999, he was even honored in his hometown of Albuquerque, with Notah Begay day.(Siderowf, 2000) Notah has been very instrumental in promoting the game of golf to the Native American community. Recently, community leaders and members of neighboring tribes gathered at the Landera Golf Course for golf, prayers, and a presentation for a $20,000 grant from the United States Golf Association. The grant will be used for the Canocito Band of the Navajos for their junior golf program. Begay is also national spokesman for the Native American Sports Council Sport Warrior Program.

For all the positive things that Notah has accomplished, there are also a couple of unforgettable moments. On January 19, 2000, Begay was arrested for his second DWI offense. However, Notah turned a negative point in his life into a positive one. Unlike many athletes today, he accepted total responsibility for his actions. Begay is even more popular with golf fans now, than before the DWI. He spoke to kids at a junior clinic, and told them he was going to jail. He told them that he made a bad decision and must take responsibility for it. Begay had to spend seven days in jail and pay a $1,000 fine. This standup guy mentality has done more to increase his good public image than his tournament wins. Although, the wins definitely help keep him in the spotlight. In 1999, he had two wins that totaled $1.255 million in earnings. In 2000 thus far, he also has two wins and has $1.649 million in earnings.

Another member of that Stanford Connection is Tiger Woods. Tiger’s unparalleled success over the last two years has forged golf into unprecedented growth. More children, women, and minorities are playing the game now than ever before. Television ratings are at an all time high. Talk about positive public relations and image, Tiger has pushed golf into unchartered popularity. Country club memberships are at an all time high. Woods has opened the door for other golfers in terms of endorsements and bigger purses for PGA Tour events. How has Tiger accomplished this public relations feat? Simple, he is winning and continues to win. In 1999, Woods had eight wins that totaled $6.6 million. In 2000 thus far, he has won nine times and has accumulated over $7 million in earnings.

Casey Martin, the third piece of the Stanford Connection, has not had the success of his college teammates. In 1999 on the Nike Tour, he entered 24 events. Martin made the cut only 13 times, and had nine Top 25 finishes. But, due to the small Nike Tour purses compared to the PGA Tour, he only earned $122,742 for his efforts. In 2000, his first year on the PGA Tour, he has entered 20 events and made the cut 11 times, with only one Top 25 finish. He has earned $117,354 so far this year. Due to Martin’s poor performance on the tour thus far, the interest from the media and fans has diminished. Casey wants to be known more for his golf game than his disability, but to accomplish this he must take his game to the next level. Winning is the best public relations tool he has.

The fate of Casey Martin’s future now rests in the hands of the Supreme Court. If the court rules against him, Martin will probably have to forfeit his dream as a professional golfer. He would more than likely end up being a club pro somewhere and that would be a shame. Casey Martin was born with a birth defect and the PGA should not punish him for that. He is simply trying to follow his dream. Any day that dream could end if he steps wrong into a hole or inadvertently damages his leg. The fibia bone in his right leg is that brittle.

The PGA Tour is on an all-time high in popularity. Whatever the court decides, the PGA Tour will continue to flourish. The PGA should drop the suit right now, but it won’t. Jack Nicklaus said the game wouldn’t be the same if Casey wins. But, Jack, wouldn’t that be a change for the better? Casey was born with a handicap. If this were Jack’s son Gary, who is a PGA Tour pro, I wonder if Jack would feel the same way. The PGA Tour and its players need to reevaluate their hearts and their positions on this issue. Casey Martin is a courageous young man, and his success could only enhance and improve the image of the game of golf.

References

Reilly, Rick. (1998, February 9). Give Casey Martin a lift. Sports Illustrated, No. 5(88), 140.

Charles, Nick. (1998, February 9). Fairway or no way. People Weekly, No. 5 (49) 48-49.

Curtis, Ted.(2000, May). Ticket to Ride? ABA Journal, 24.

Reilly, Rick.(2000, June 12). Setting a Sandy Trap? Sports Illustrated, No. 24(92), 28.

Strange, Curtis. (1998, March). Protecting the game. Golf Magazine, 32-33.

Cunneff, Tom. (1998, September). Great golf 101. Golf Magazine, No. 9 (40), 86-87.

Siderowf, Topsy. (2000, April). A bump in the road. Golf Digest, No. 4(51) p. 55.

U.S. Sports Academy2017-08-07T15:30:13-05:00February 14th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues|Comments Off

Slim Enough to Swim? Weight Pressures for Competitive Swimmers and Coaching Implications

Submitted by: Justine J. Reel, Ph.D. and Diane L. Gill, Ph.D.

Swimmers found themselves in the spotlight at the 2000 Sydney Olympics and in the scrutiny of spectators and sport researchers alike. An attempt is often made to determine what the athlete is feeling behind the scenes and this article will focus on body weight concerns among swimmers. While sports such as gymnastics (Conviser, Fitzgibbon, & Kahn, 2000) and figure skating (Smith, 1997; Ryan, 1995) have been consistently labeled “leanness-demand” sports, the weight-related pressures for swimmers have been less clear. Benson and Taub (1993) reported that swimmers feel pressure to drop weight, “Swimmers may be especially vulnerable to disordered eating due to the display of their bodies in a tight and revealing team uniform” (p. 360).

Thompson and Sherman (1993) hypothesized that swimmers face unique pressures to lose weight in their sport. While the revealing team uniform has been reported by cheerleaders (Reel & Gill, 1998), for swimming there is the additional pressure that comes with the perception held by many top swim coaches that lower body weight and body fat improves swimming times. Thorton (1990) demonstrated that Olympic females were told to lose weight and body fat to cut times. “When freestyler Tiffany Cohen won her Olympic medals, her body fat was 22%. That percentage is considerably above the 15% that many coaches routinely advocate as an upper-end cutoff for elite female swimmers” (p. 120).

This study has the following purposes: (1) To identify most frequently reported weight-related stressors in swimming; (2) To examine the prevalence of weight concerns among female swimmers; and (3) To determine whether body concerns/stressors in swimming are related to social physique anxiety.

Method

Participants

Sixty-two female swimmers from 7 college swim teams participated. Swimmers weighed 99 to 190 pounds (M =134.21). Most swimmers reported wanting to lose weight (M=7.56 pounds), with one swimmer wanting to drop 37 pounds.

Measures

The Weight Pressures in Swimming (WPS) inventory was patterned after Reel & Gill’s (1996) CHEER instrument that measured weight pressures in cheerleading. Internal consistency for all 10 items was low, which resulted in dropping detracting items to obtain a stronger and more reliable measure (alpha=.71 )

The Social Physique Anxiety Scale (SPAS), a 12-item self-report measure developed by Hart, Leary and Rejeski (1989), measures one’s degree of social physique anxiety which has been defined as the degree of anxiety one experiences when presenting one’s body to others. Internal consistency for SPAS has been reported (alpha=.90) and validity has been supported by the moderate correlation of SPAS to other measures.

Results

Over half (51.6%) of swimmers agreed with the statement, “There are weight pressures in swimming.” Most frequently reported weight stressors were as follows: the revealing team uniform (swim suit) – 45.2%; the perception that lower weight helps swim performance (42%); teammates noticing weight (16.1%); crowd scrutinizing body (12.9%); and the feeling that the lightest swimmers have a performance advantage (9.7%). Positive responses to WPS are provided in Table 1.

Table 1. Positive Responses to WPS

WPS Items	Strongly Agree/Agree %
My team has a try-out weight requirement.	1.6% (1)
Swim team should have a weight limit.	4.8% (3)
My swim performance would improve if I lost at least 5 pounds.	42% (26)
My team members notice if I put on weight.	16.1% (10)
My coach encourages swimmers to lose weight.	0% (0)
My team participates in weight training.	59.7% (37)
Lightest swimmers are at a performance advantage	9.7% (6)
My team swim suit makes me conscious of my bodily appearance.	45.2% (28)*
Weigh-ins are held throughout the season.	3.2%
The crowd scrutinizes my body and makes me concerned about weight and appearance.	12.9% (8)

Scores on SPAS ranged from very low (16) to very high (58 out of a possible 60). The mean score (M = 33.8, SD = 9.87) for the swimmers fell in the healthy (low SPAS) range. However, 16 female swimmers scored in the high SPAS range. Pearson correlational analyses revealed a moderate correlation (r=.51) between total WPS and SPAS scores, suggesting that weight concerns specific to swimming were related to body image. SPAS was also logically related to some individual items of WPS, including crowd stressor (r=.46), performance stressor (r=.42), teammate stressor (r=.27), and swim suit stressor (r=.26).

Discussion

Clearly, some swimmers are experiencing weight-related stressors in the competitive swimming environment. While the uniform and performance pressures were frequently cited, other stressors (e.g., crowd, teammates) were also reported. Interestingly, although competitive suits are typically one-piece styles, participants reported that suits are ordered in much smaller sizes to encourage a streamlining effect. Therefore, competitive swimmers often wear swimsuits that are 2 or more sizes smaller than their typical size, and in some cases youth sizes are worn to prevent drag. The beliefs that decreased weight and body fat are associated with increased performance are widespread. Unfortunately these beliefs are learned by young swimmers who preach them when they become coaches. Although many swimmers seem able to cope with the pressure to lose weight, some swimmers with high levels of social physique anxiety seemed to be “at-risk” for disordered eating.

Coaching Implications

Coaches may benefit from an awareness of weight-related pressures for competitive swimmers. It is important to understand that while swimmers may become more comfortable than the general public about wearing swim suits, that they may experience the stress associated with wearing very small and revealing suits for competitive purposes. More importantly, swim coaches need to be aware that while many swimmers may have healthy body image, there may be some swimmers that have highly negative feelings toward their body. It is anticipated that their negative self-thoughts may impact swim performance and attitudes toward competitive swim participation. A summary of coaching strategies for preventing weight stressors from occurring among competitive swimmers is provided in Appendix A.

Future research in this area should focus on coaching attitudes about body weight and swim performance. With the advent of the new Fast-skin suits, researchers should observe whether there are changes in weight-related attitudes. Weight-related stressors among male and female swimmers in Division I schools, Olympic swimmers, and youth swimmers should be explored in depth. It is clear that there are pressures related to body weight for collegiate female swimmers as outlined by one swimmer:

I cannot be as competitive because of my heavier bone structure. Going faster is easier for lighter people. Everyone changes in the dressing room together and the dressing room has a scale. Everyone on the team is always prone to gossip if there is anyone who is especially overweight or to compare themselves to the “skinny” people on the team.

References

Benson, R., & Taub, D.E. (1993). Using the PRECEDE model for causal analysis of bulimic tendencies among elite women swimmers. Journal of Health Education, 24(6), 360-368.

Conviser, J., Fitzgibbon, M., & Kahn, S. (2000). NCAA female gymnasts and eating disorders: A coach=s perspective. Paper presented at the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology Conference. Nashville, TN.
Hart, E., Leary, M.R., & Rejeski, W.J. (1989). The measurement of social physique anxiety. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 11, 94-104.

Reel, J.J., & Gill, D.L. (1996). Psychosocial factors related to eating disorders among high school and college female cheerleaders. The Sport Psychologist, 10, 195-206.

Reel, J.J., & Gill, D.L. (1998). Weight concerns and disordered eating attitudes among male and female college cheerleaders. Women in Sport & Physical Activity Journal, 7(2), 79-94.

Ryan, J. (1995). Little girls in pretty boxes: The making and breaking of elite gymnasts and figure skaters. New York: Doubleday.
Smith, B. (1997). Behind the scenes of the world=s most glamorous sport: Talking figure skating. Toronto, Ontario: McClelland & Stewart.

Thompson, R.A., & Sherman, R.T. (1993). Helping athletes with eating disorders. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Thorton, J.S. (1990). Feast or Famine: Eating disorders in athletes. The Physician and Sportsmedicine, 18(4), 116-122.

Appendix A

Coaching Strategies

Eliminate weight requirements and weight-related goal-setting.
Avoid group weigh-ins.
Allow team members to choose team suit whenever possible.
Educate swimmers about muscle weighing more than fat.
Encourage swimmers to meet caloric intake needs.
Discourage team members from making weight-related comments to other swimmers.
Evaluate your beliefs about weight-performance relationship.
Monitor swimmers’ eating behavior/body concerns and look for “at-risk” swimmers.
Listen to swimmers’ concerns about weight and body.
Encourage “at-risk” swimmers to keep a food log to ensure adequate caloric intake.
Develop a referral network at your university or in your community so that
you can refer an athlete as needed
Watch comments that suggest swimmers should drop weight to cut times

Author’s Note:

For editorial correspondence:
Justine Reel, Ph.D.
2312 Woodview Way
Malvern, PA 19355
Phone/Fax: 610-436-2148
jreel@wcupa.edu

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-26T22:16:12-06:00February 14th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

The World Olympians Association Introduction

Submitted by: Dr. Richard Bell, Ed.D.

The World Olympians Asociation is an independent global organization representing Olympians. It was created following the Centennial Olympic Congress’ Congress of Unity in Paris in 1994. The WOA is formally recognized by the International Olympic Committee under Rule 4 of the Olympic Charter.

Upon his election as President of the WOA, Mr. Pal Schmitt expressed his goal to increase the number of members in order to achieve a universal representation of national associations of Olympic athletes in the WOA. It is his expressed desire to involve Olympians in Olympic activities in their own countries to educate young people, promote Ollympic ideals and strengthen the Olympic Movement. He believes that the WOA is becoming the fourth pillar of the Olympic Movement together with the other three: the International Olympic Committee ( IOC), the International Federations and the National Olympic Committee (NOC).

The officers of the WOA are:

Honorary President: Mr. Juan Antonio Samaranch, Spain

President: Mr. Pal Schmitt, Hungary

Vice Presidents: Dr. Elizabeth A.E. Ferris, Great Britain; Dr. William A. Toomey, United States

Secretary General: Dr. Liston D. Bochette, Puerto Rico

Executive Committee Members: Mr. Herb Elliot, Australia; Mr El Hadj, Amadou Dia BA, Senegal, and Mrs Irena Szewinska, Poland

The medium/long term objectives of the WOA, which the Executive Board is now pursuing, include the following:

Further growth in the membership with the ultimate goal being to include every country recognized by the IOC which has an Olympian living within its territory. The WOA has the names and brief information on every Olympian since 1896. Direct liaison with the National Association of Olympic Athletes (NAOA) to indicate both domestic and international activities in which Olympians may become involved. The WOA Executive Board has indicated its strong support for the involvement of Olympians worldwide in the IOC’s humanitarian and environment activities. The WOA is also active in supporting the IOC in its policy development regarding women in sport. The WOA has commenced discussions with the IOC and SOCOG with regard to the special interest of Olympians in connection with the celebration of a particular Games i.e. Olympians to be allowed to participate in the Torch Relay, have access (at normal cost) to tickets to their own event and to be included as volunteers as possible, etc. The IOC has initiated the concept of the Olympians Reunion Center in Atlanta – a great success that the WOA hopes to be able to promote in future Games.

The WOA hopes to be able to assist NAOAs in conjunction with NOCs in the development of Olympian affinity cards which may provide benefits to Olympians – hotels, travel etc. The WOA is currently working on a model to be used globally.

At its most recent meeting, the Executive Board resolved to work towards the globalization of the Olympic Job Opportunity Program which now operates in a small number of countries. The WOA feels that the program should include all Olympians – not only active elite competitors. This process will need to be developed via NOCs and the NAOAs.

Although the exact number of Olympians since 1896 is relatively clear, it is not clear as to the number of Olympians who are still alive. President Samaranch has sent letters to all Olympians via the NOCs – the only method of directly contacting the Olympians. This is apparently the first time that an IOC President has directly corresponded individually with all Olympians.

The IOC has guaranteed free admission to the Olympic Museum to all Olympians upon production of the IOC participants pin.

The WOA does not see itself as a bureaucracy to mirror the IOC but rather as a catalyst to stimulate involvement of Olympians in the activities of the Olympic Movement, particularly in the framework established by the IOC and the NOCs. Olympians are the greatest resource of the IOC and have an enormous potential contribution to make. As a group, they are the greatest role models in the world.

It is estimated that there are slightly more then 60,000 living Olympians around the world. To be an Olympian is one of the most significant achievements that any person can realize during his or her lifetime. Hopefully, the creation of the WOA and its respective members, the NAOAs, will retain and strengthen the involvement of Olympians around the world within the Olympic Movement.

The IOC may well regard the Olympians as its strongest arm in the quest to contribute to a more harmonious, peaceful, prosperous and enjoyable world.

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-27T15:02:28-06:00February 14th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports History, Sports Management|Comments Off