Leisure constraints experienced by university students in Greece

ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was (a) to investigate students’ leisure constraints; (b) to identify students’ profiles; and (c) to explore the effects of gender, residence, participation in physical activities, and health habits on the intensity of constraints experienced. Using the scale developed by Alexandris and Caroll (1997), it was observed that students’ perceived their leisure activities to be constrained by, mainly, accessibility and facilities. Analyses of variance employing constraints as the dependent variables, with (a) residence before age 18 and (b) health habits as independent variables, showed, for the dimension “lack of company,” some statistically significant differences between students born and raised in small cities and those born and raised in big cities. Furthermore, students from small cities reported significantly more constraints arising from lack of company during leisure activities. In contrast, in four of the seven constraint dimensions, students who paid much attention to their nutrition habits (i.e., who ate more healthily) perceived fewer constraints on leisure activities than did students paying no attention to nutrition. Providing leisure and sport education, inculcating positive attitudes about participation, might reduce students’ experience of leisure constraints and should be developed as a strategic marketing effort to involve both private and public sectors, since it is undeniable that an active lifestyle is healthier than a sedentary lifestyle.

INTRODUCTION
Leisure constraints research focuses on investigating factors that inhibit or prohibit participation and enjoyment in leisure (Jackson, 2000). As a scientific field, it belongs to the broader field of leisure studies, and only in the last two decades has it arrived as a distinct field, thanks to systematic research (Jackson, 2005). Studying leisure constraints might lead to both humanitarian and managerial outcomes. From a humanitarian point of view, it would be valuable to understand the reasons underlying the final decision to participate in activities, since participation, even in soft forms of physical activity, has been found to offer various benefits to participants, such as a high level of self-esteem, freedom from some diseases, a high quality of life, and improvement of cardiac health (Strauss, 2000). From a managerial point of view, probing the source of leisure constraints may ultimately help in better organizing and promoting leisure activities. Research may also become valuable in the development of focused leisure policies and strategies for every institute or company that provides organized leisure activities.

Furthermore, a thorough understanding of what keeps people away from physical activities is essential for the identification of appropriate points of intervention to promote active lifestyles and the health benefits they offer (Davison & Lawson, 2006). Additionally, as Larson (2000) noted, leisure is a crucial developmental context for young people and adolescents. From this point of view, investigating leisure constraints among the specific age-based category of young students is vital. Knowledge gained could improve the implementation of leisure services for youth—the future, hopefully healthier, society.

It is valuable to investigate leisure constraints, since they seem to determine to a great degree actual participation in activities (Alecandris, Tsorbatzoudis & Grouios, 2002). Moreover, identifying the strongest constraints may provide information helpful in creating strategies to promote leisure and sport activities. Understanding differences in perceived constraints associated with gender, age, participation, and nutrition habits, should be useful for planning, promoting, and managing organized leisure sport activities.

The present study aimed to (a) identify the leisure constraints experienced by students in Thessaloniki in northern Greece; (b) depict students’ profiles in terms of their health habits; (c) identify the hierarchy of intensity of the experience of constraints; and (d) investigate differences in constraints experienced, by gender, residence, participation in physical activities, and nutrition habits.

LITERATURE REVIEW
Leisure constraints began to be systematically investigated in the 1980s. At that time, they were closely related to participation, presenting “barriers” that existed between a person’s desire to participate actively in a leisure activity and his/her actual participation. (Jackson, 2005) The optic angle changed greatly throughout the 1980s and 1990s (Jackson & Scott, 1999), as the variety of constraints acknowledged to wield an influence grew. This was the outcome of such new methodological approaches as factor analysis and cluster analysis (Hawkins & Freeman, 1993; Norman, 1996; Norman, 1995; Stodolska, 1998).

Constraints, however, are no longer considered the only factors that influence participation. In other words, a person’s experience of constraints does not necessarily lead to non-participation (Jackson, 2005). Crawford and Godbey (1987) distinguished three categories of leisure constraints: (a) intrapersonal constraints, including negative individual psychological states and/or other characteristics of an individual that interact with personal preferences (e.g., self-esteem and perceived physical skills); (b) interpersonal constraints, stemming from interactions and relationships among individuals (e.g., access to partners’ or friends’ company for leisure activities); and (c) structural constraints, which intervene between leisure preferences and participation (e.g., costs of participating and problems with facilities). Crawford and Godbey’s classification of leisure constraints (1987) reflects the dimensionality underlying leisure constraints and has been well supported by subsequent research (Backman, 1991; Henderson, Stalnaker, & Taylor, 1998; Hultsman, 1995; Jackson, 1991).

The hierarchical model by Crawford, Jackson and Godbey (1991), which was based on earlier work by Scott (1991), assigns intrapersonal and interpersonal constraints the strongest influence on formation of leisure habits, relegating structural constraints to a role of least importance. Individuals experience the three types of constraint hierarchically, according to the model, through the participation decision-making process; constraints interact with motivations and preferences and shape the level of participation. Individuals may, however, negotiate their way through constraints, finding ways to participate in the face of them.

Time- and cost-related constraints rank among the most frequent and powerful constraints on leisure activities generally (Jackson, 2005). Walker and Virden (2004) noted that constraints on time are the strongest ones, and the ones most common in relevant studies.

Leisure constraints and gender
Most of the relevant studies (Alexandris & Carroll, 1997; Jackson, 2005; Horna, 1989; Jackson & Henderson, 1995; Rocklynn, 1998) have come to the common conclusion that women face more intense leisure constraints than men, and this results mainly from lack of time. They tend to suggest that women’s place within society, women’s roles and responsibilities, often limit women’s freedom of choice. Furthermore, lack of technical skills, of private transportation, and of financial resources are also experienced by women more intensely than men (Harahoussou, 1996; Harrington & Dawson, 1995).
Leisure constraints, educational level, age and marital status

Leisure constraints have also been found to be related to demographic data other than gender, such as education, age, and marital status (Alexandris & Carroll, 1997; Jackson & Henderson, 1995; Witt & Goodale, 1981). People with more education have been found to experience a lower level of constraints, while older people report greater time constraints and married people report more constraints related to family responsibilities.
Leisure constraints and residence

The direct relationship between leisure constraints and residence has not previously been investigated. However, in a national survey in the United States (Klepeis et al., 1996) concerning energy expenditure for leisure-time physical activity, differences were reported among the country’s regions. Inhabitants of the Pacific region (California, Nevada, Arizona, and Hawaii) were more physically active than those of the Central region (Nebraska, Kansas, Iowa, and Missouri), for example.

Leisure constraints and participation in leisure activities
During the process of deciding to participate in leisure activities, experienced constraints may affect individuals’ preferences, interests, and enjoyment derived from participation. Alexandris, Tsorbatzoudis, and Grouios (2002) found that leisure constraints may affect frequency of participation in activities, sometimes leading even to complete non-participation. However, studies exist flatly countering that conclusion (Kay & Jackson, 1991; Scott, 1991). This discrepancy between findings makes the present investigation of leisure constraints and frequency of participation of some importance.
Leisure constraints and nutrition habits

Many studies demonstrate that regular participation in physical activity is part of a healthy lifestyle (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2000). Physical activity may prevent those diseases fostered by the under-mobility characterizing everyday life; they may also enhance quality of life more generally (Berlin & Colditz, 1998; Blair & Morrow, 1998; Corbin, Lindsey & Welk, 2000). It is also undeniable that healthy nutrition habits are important for good health (Twisk, Van Mechelen, Kemper & Post, 1997; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1999).

Nutrition habits have been studied in relation to exercise habits (Pitsavos et al., 2005; Rimal, 2002; Schnohr et al., 2004), establishing that physically active people have healthier nutrition habits than those who are less physically active. However, nutrition habits have not previously been investigated in terms of their relation to leisure constraints. The authors of the present study asked whether constraints experienced on healthful leisure activities might have a negative association with healthy nutrition habits, in a context of a healthy modus vivendi.

Leisure constraints, smoking, and alcohol use
Smoking has also been studied in relation to participation in leisure activities (Schnohr et al., 2000; Theodorakis & Hassandra, 2005). Study results suggest in common that physically active people are less likely to smoke than inactive people, and there are similar findings concerning alcohol use (Krick & Sobal, 1990; Schnohr et al. 2000), in that physically inactive people were found to be relatively likelier to drink heavily. The present study’s direct exploration of a relationship between leisure constraints and smoking and drinking should pinpoint these habits’ roles in decisions about participating (the negotiation process) in activities.

METHOD
Participants and procedure
The present research was conducted among university students in Greece. Self-report questionnaires were distributed at student clubs and in teaching classrooms, between December 2005 and February 2006. Of 380 questionnaires distributed, 320 were returned (a response rate of 84%).

Instrument
Alexandris and Caroll’s scale (1997), which was developed and standardized for the general adult population in Greece, was used to measure experienced (or perceived) constraints. The scale comprises 39 statements, classified in seven dimensions, or constraint categories, about students’ current participation in leisure activities. The seven-point Likert-type scale offers responses ranging from “very important” (1) to “not important” (7). Questions about demographic details followed.

RESULTS
Of the surveyed students, 57.2% were women and 42.8% were men. The mean age was 21.60 years (S.D. = 2.11). As to residence, 33.8% had grown up in one of the two biggest urban centers in Greece, Athens and Thessaloniki, while 18.8% came from cities of no more than 200,000 inhabitants; 18.4% came from cities of no more than 50,000 inhabitants; 17.5% from cities of 25,000 or fewer inhabitants; and 11.6% from cities of 15,000 or fewer inhabitants. Students were asked for information about their nutrition, alcohol consumption, smoking, and drug use. The results are shown in table 1.

Table 1
Health habits

Nutrition Alcohol Smoking Drugs
Always consume healthy food 10.3% Never drink 17.8% Non-smoker 71.9% Never used 90%
Mostly healthy food 34.7% 1 time per month 21.9% 1-3 per day 5.6% <1 time per month 6.6%
Sometimes healthy food 41.6% 1 time per week 42.2% 4-10 per day 6.9% 1-3 times per month 1.3%
Do not consume healthy food 13.4% >1 per week 18.1% 11-20 per day 9.7% 1 time per week 2.1%
>20 per day 5.9%

Students were also asked about their behavior concerning physical activity. More precisely, they were asked how often weekly they visited private gyms, whether they considered themselves to be athletes, how often they participated in university sport programs, and how often they practiced individually. All these questions were referred to weekly participation.

Table 2

Participation in physical activities (hourly totals per week)

Not at all 1-2 hours 3-4 hours 5-6 hours >7 hours Total
Private gyms 76.3% 8.4% 6.6% 4.1% 4.6% 100%
Sport clubs 83.4% 4.1% 4.4% 2.8% 5.3% 100%
University 81.9% 5.3% 5.9% 3.1% 3.8% 100%
Individual 41.9% 37.2% 15.9% 2.5% 2.5% 100%

Descriptive statistics derived from the leisure constraints scale are contained in Table 3, which also presents the results (alpha scores) of reliability testing of each dimension’s measure.
Table 3
Descriptive statistics from scale, including reliability

Dimensions

M

SD

Alpha

Lack of access

3.59

1.76

.77

Lack of facilities

3.92

1.49

.81

Lack of company

4.37

1.50

.78

Lack of time

4.54

1.09

.60

Lack of knowledge

5.00

1.71

.84

Lack of interest

5.33

1.40

.85

Psychological dimension

5.72

1.13

.89

The dimension “lack of access” is perceived as the most important constraint, followed by “lack of facilities” and “lack of company.” The reliability of the dimensions ranges from .60 to .89.

Anova
Students’ residence prior to age 18
The ANOVA revealed statistically significant differences (F4,313=2.52, p<.05) in the dimension “lack of company” based on place of residence before age 18; the post hoc Scheffe test showed that students who had lived in cities of 15,000 citizens (M=3.90) found lack of company to be a more important constraint than did students from the biggest cities (M2 = 4.60).
Nutrition habits

The ANOVA revealed statistically significant differences related to students’ nutrition habits in four out of seven constraint dimensions. The dimensions in which there were significant differences were: (a) lack of time (F3,316 = 4.58, p<.05); (b) psychological dimension (F3,316=6.33, p<.05); (c) lack of company (F3,314=4.69, p<.05); and (d) lack of interest (F3,314=5.44, p<.05). The post hoc Scheffe test revealed that (a) for students who did not pay attention to nutrition and did not consume healthy food (M=4.29), time was a more important constraint than for students who paid much attention to nutrition and consumed healthy food (M=5.08); (b) for students who did not pay attention to nutrition and did not consume healthy food (M1=5.21), the psychological dimension was a more important constraint than for students who paid attention to nutrition and consumed healthy food (M2=6.29); (c) for students who did not pay attention to nutrition and did not consume healthy food (M1=3.74), “lack of company” was a more important constraint than for students who paid attention to nutrition and consumed healthy food (M2=4.76); and (d) for students who did not pay attention to nutrition and did not consume healthy food (M1=4.79), “lack of interest” was a more important constraint than for students who paid attention to nutrition and consumed healthy food (M2=5.71). No statistically significant differences were seen according to gender or to weekly sport participation.

DISCUSSION

Students’ profile
The majority of the students in the sample were undergraduate men beginning the third decade of life. Most were born and had grown up in cities of more than 200,000 inhabitants; they were largely non-smokers and mainly social drinkers. They tended to give little or no attention to nutrition habits. As far as participation in physical activities, the majority did not participate in university leisure or sports programs, nor were they active athletes at sport clubs. However, almost one-third of them did regularly visit private gyms, and most spent from one to seven or more hours per week in individually organized physical activities. These results seem to be in accord with similar studies (Pitsavos et al., 2005; Rimal, 2002; Schnohr et al., 2004), in that physically active people have previously been found to have more healthy nutrition habits than physically inactive people.

Leisure constraints
In the present study, “lack of access” was the dimension deemed their most important constraint by the students. Perceived “lack of facilities” was the second most important constraint, and “lack of company” was the third. This finding accords with findings of previous studies, throughout which these three dimensions usually constitute the most important factors preventing people from participating in leisure activities (Alexandris & Carroll, 1997; Alexandris & Carroll, 1999).

A possible explanation for the importance of “lack of access” is that students lack opportunity to participate in physical activities close to home, since most live in the center of a city. Transportation often demands time, with traffic jams a daily problem in, for example, Thessaloniki. In addition, students, especially those living in Thessaloniki on a temporary basis, to study, typically do not own cars. By its unpunctuality, furthermore, public transportation apparently discourages students from using it.

The finding concerning lack of facilities may reflect the low quality of some sport and leisure facilities, including overcrowding. Studies conducted in Greek environments have showed that leisure services, especially in public and municipal facilities, are not satisfying, mainly due to insufficient promotion of sport and leisure activities for all (Alexandris & Carroll, 1999). As Alexandris (1998) noted, insufficient sport facilities and limited opportunities in leisure programs are often responsible for low participation.

Facilities-related problems also give an idea of how students feel about university facilities and programs. One statement from the instrument, “I do not like activities that are offered in organized programs,” was indicated by the students to be a significant constraint; they report preferring individual activities in high-quality facilities, according to the descriptive statistics.

Finally, “lack of company,” the third most important dimension of constraint in this study, may be explained by the generic phenomenon of isolation, which seems stronger in big cities. However, the finding may also reflect the fact that, after all, young people prefer other kinds of activities in their free time, despite declaring that they would participate in physical activities if accompanied by a companion. As Aittasalo, Miilunpalo, and Suni (2003) pointed out, in technologically developed countries, a sedentary lifestyle is adopted by more and more people.

The dimension “lack of time,” which is characterized as the most common and strongest constraint by Jackson (2005), in this study ranks only fourth in the hierarchy of intensity. In other words, one might argue that students do not experience time as a strong constraint on their leisure activities. A reason may be that students’ daytime programs comprise studying and attending lectures only some of which are compulsory. Therefore, students have more free time than those adults who are already in the labor market.

Regarding residence before age 18, students from towns of no more than 15,000 inhabitants experienced the constraint “lack of company” more intensely than did students who came from the two biggest cities in Greece. In other words, it was more common among students born and raised in small communities to feel a lack of friends or partners for leisure activity companionship. This is straightforward. People from small communities have more opportunity to develop friendly relations and interactions with people than do city dwellers. When they move to a bigger city (as many students in the sample had, in order to attend college), such people experience “lack of company” comparatively intensely.

Regarding students’ nutrition habits, the statistically significant differences that were observed distinguished “students who paid much attention to their nutrition by always consuming healthy food” from “students who did not pay any attention at all to their nutrition habits.” More precisely, students who paid attention to nutrition experienced leisure constraints at a lower level than students unconcerned with the food they consumed. It seems, then, that students who take care of themselves in terms of diet do the same in terms of physical activity, their approach counterbalancing any constraints experienced. As Twisk et al. (1997) pointed out, physical activity and diet are two important components of contemporary life. Healthy food and regular participation in leisure activities, or physical activities of soft form, seem to play an important part in good health. While nutrition habits have previously been studied in relation to participation in physical activities (Pitsavos et al., 2005; Schnohr et al., 2004; Rimal, 2002), the results of the present study represent a more sensitive approach and lead to the conclusion that people with healthy nutrition habits feel less constrained in their leisure physical activities than do people unmindful of their nutrition habits.

The portion of this study examining smoking and drinking in a context of leisure constraints showed no statistically significant differences between smokers/drinkers and non-smokers/non-drinkers. However, it has been found that smoking and drinking can affect leisure participation (Krick & Sobal, 1990; Schnohr et al., 2000; Theodorakis & Hassandra, 2005). The “bad” habits of smoking and alcohol use do not seem strong enough to affect constraints; they affect actual participation, but not the beginning of decision making, where negotiation plays a part.

The novelty of the current study lies in the fact that it directly links leisure constraints to nutrition habits. So far, nutrition habits have been examined for their relevance to actual participation. One could argue that this finding highlights even more clearly the important role that healthy nutrition habits can play in a balanced, high-quality life.

The fact that most of the students did not participate in university leisure and sport programs should, first of all, put university leisure and sport program providers on alert. Students experienced problems with facilities; overcrowding might mean facilities were inadequate to cover students’ needs, or perhaps that there were some very popular activities. University leisure providers should pinpoint student needs and preferences, then redesign their programs as necessary. This could be achieved with such marketing tools as SWOT analysis, which focuses on gathering data about potential participants and describing their needs.

Of course, students’ characteristic preference for individually organized activities might be another indication of the social alienation that people experience and/or prefer in big cities. This is an important issue, though one beyond the authors’ scope. Access to sport facilities seems to be another constraint for students. It is in part an issue of urban planning concerning local authorities and public transportation officials; but as far as universities are concerned, student buses could be provided to transport students from a department or other central point on campus, to exercise facilities or sites for outdoor recreation.

In conclusion, providing leisure and sport education and fostering positive attitudes towards lifelong fitness could prevent the experience of leisure constraints. Such education should not be approached, however, as an effort to be made only by individual leisure and sport providers. It should be developed as a strategic marketing plan involving the private and the public sector, since it is undeniable that participating in leisure and sport activities promotes health.

Lead author: Amalia Drakou
1, Alexandrou Svolou Street
546 22 Thessaloniki
Greece
Email: adrakou@phed.auth.gr

 

 

REFERENCES
Aittasalo, M., Miilunpalo, S., & Suni, J. (2003). The effectiveness of physical activity counselling in a work-site setting. A randomized controlled trial. Patient Education Counselling, 55, 193–202.

Alexandris, K. (1998). Patterns of recreational sport participation among the adult population in Greece. Cyber Journal of Sport Marketing, 2(2), 1–9.

Alexandris K., & Caroll, B. (1997). An analysis of leisure constraints based on different recreational sport participation levels: Results from a study in Greece. Leisure Sciences, 19, 1–15.

Alexandris, K., Tsorbatzoudis, C., & Grouios, G. (2002). Perceived constraints on recreational sport participation: Investigating their relationship with intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and amotivation. Journal of Leisure Research, 34(3), 233–252.

Backman, S. (1991). An investigation of the relationship between activity loyalty and perceived constraints. Journal of Leisure Research, 23, 332–344.

Berlin, J. A., & Colditz, G. A. (1990). A meta-analysis of physical activity in the prevention of coronary heart disease. American Journal of Epidemiology, 132, 612–628.

Blair, S. N., & Morrow, J. R. (1998). Introduction: Cooper Institute /American College of Sport Medicine 1997 Physical Activity Intervention Conference. American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 15, 255–256.

Corbin, C. B., Lindsey, R., & Welk, G. (2000). Concepts of fitness and wellness (3rd ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Crawford, D. W., & Godbey, G. (1987). Reconceptualizing barriers to family leisure. Leisure Sciences, 9, 119–127.

Crawford, D. W., Jackson, E. L., & Godbey, G. (1991). A hierarchical model of leisure constraints. Leisure Sciences, 13, 309–320.

Davison, K. K., & Lawson, C. T. (2006). Do attributes in the physical environment influence children’s physical activity? A review of the literature. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, (Vol), 3–19.

Elmendorf, W. E., & Willits, E. K. (2005). Urban park and forest participation and landscape preference: A review of the relevant literature. Journal of Arboriculture, 31(6), 311–317.

Ferris, A. L. (1962). National Recreation Survey, Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission (Study Report no. 19). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Harahoussou, Y. (1996). Sociocultural influences on Greek women’s involvement in physical recreation. International Review for Sociology of Sport, 31, 219–227.

Harrington, M., & Dawson, D. (1995). Who has it best? Women’s labor force participation, perceptions of leisure and constraints to enjoyment of leisure. Journal of Leisure Research, 27(1), 4–24.

Hawkins, B. A., & Freeman, B. (1993). Factor analysis of leisure constraints for ageing adults with mental retardation. Paper presented at the NRPA Symposium on Leisure Research, San Jose, CA.

Henderson, K., Stalnaker, D., & Taylor, G. (1988). The relationship between barriers to recreation and gender-role personality traits for women. Journal of Leisure Research, 20, 69–80.

Horna, J. L. (1989). The leisure component of the parental role. Journal of Leisure Research, 10(3), 203–215.

Hultsman, W. (1995). Recognizing patterns of leisure constraints: An extension of the exploration of dimensionality. Journal of Leisure Research, 27, 228–244.

Jackson, E. L. (2000). Will research on leisure constraints still be relevant in the twenty-first century? Journal of Leisure Research, 32, 62–68.

Jackson, E. L. (2005). Leisure constraint research: Overview of a developing theme in leisure studies. In Jackson, E. (Ed.), Constraints to Leisure (pp. ??–??). State College, PA: Venture Publishing.

Jackson, E. L. (1991). Leisure constraints/constrained leisure [Special issue]. Journal of Leisure Research, 23, 279–285.

Jackson, E. L., & Scott, D. (1997). Constraints to leisure. In. E. L. Jackson and T. L. Burton (Eds.), Leisure Studies: Prospects for the twenty-first century (pp.299–321). State College, PA: Venture Publishing.

Jackson, E. L., & Henderson, K. (1995). Gender-based analysis of leisure constraints. Leisure Sciences, 17, 31–51.

Johnson, C. Y., Bowker, J. M., & Cordell, K. (2001). Outdoor recreation constraints: An examination of race, gender and rural dwelling. Southern Rural Sociology, 17, 111–133.

Kay, T., & Jackson, G. (1991). Leisure despite constraint: The impact of leisure constraints on leisure participation. Journal of Leisure Research, 23, 301–313.

Klepeis, N. E., Tsang, A., & Behar, J. (1996). Analysis of the National Human Activity Pattern Survey (NHAPS): A resource for assessing exposure to environmental pollutants. Las Vegas, NV: U. S. Environmental Protection Agency.

Krick, J. P., & Sobal, J. (1996). Relationships between health protective behaviors. Journal of Community Health, 15(1), 19–34.

Norman, W. (1995). Perceived constraints: A new approach to segmenting the vacation travel markets. Paper presented at the NRPA Symposium on Leisure Research, San Antonio, TX.

Norman, W. (1996). A perspective on recreational use of South Carolina rivers. South Carolina River News. 2(3), 1–2.

Pitsiavos, C., Panagiotakos, D. B., Lentzas, Y., & Stefanidis, C. (2005). Epidemiology of leisure time physical activity in socio-demographic, lifestyle and psychological characteristics of men and women in Greece: The ATTICA study. BMC Public Health, 5(37).

Rimal, A. (2002). Association of nutrition concerns and socioeconomic status with exercise habits. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 26(4), 322–327.

Rocklynn, C. H. (1998). Adolescent girls and outdoor recreation: A case study examining constraints and effective programming. Journal of Leisure Research, 30(3), 356–379.

Schnohr, C., Hojbejerre, L., Riegels, M., Leder, L., Prescott, E., & Gronbaek, M. (2004). Does educational level influence the effects of smoking, alcohol, physical activity and obesity on mortality? A prospective population study. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 32, 250–256.

Scott , D. (1991). The problematic nature of participation in contract bridge: A qualitative study of group related constraints. Leisure Sciences, 13, 321–336.

Stodolska, M. (1998). Assimilation and leisure constraints: Dynamics of constraints on leisure in immigrant populations. Journal of Leisure Research, 3, 521–551.

Strauss, R. C. (2000). Childhood obesity and self esteem. Journal of Pediatrics, 105, 1–15.

Theodorakis, Y., & Hassandra, M. (2005). Smoking and exercise. Differences between exercisers and non-exercisers [Part II]. Inquiries in Sport and Physical Education, 3, 239–248

Twisk, J., Van Mechelen, W., Kemper, H., & Post, G. (1997). The relation between “long-term exposure” to lifestyle during youth and young adulthood and risk factors for cardiovascular disease at adult age. Journal of Adolescent Health, 20, 309–319.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2000). Healthy people 2010: Understanding and improving health (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1999). Public Health Service, Center for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease. Prevention and Health Promotion, Division of Nutrition and Physical Activity.

Virden, R. J., & Walker, G. J. (1999). Ethnic/racial and gender variation among meanings given to, and preferences for, the natural environment. Leisure Studies, 21, 219–239.

Witt, P. A., & Goodale, T. L. (1981). The relationship between barriers to leisure enjoyment and family stages. Leisure Sciences, 4, 29–49.

2013-11-27T19:26:11-06:00January 7th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off on Leisure constraints experienced by university students in Greece

Impact of Media Coverage of the 42nd World Archery Championships on Audience Attendance and Purchases

ABSTRACT
Sports and the media, two of the most prevalent elements in contemporary society, rely on each other to prosper and have been deeply ingrained in our daily lives. While studies have been conducted on the influence of media on the consumption of major spectator sports (Bernstein & Blain, 2003; Donnelly, 1996; Real & Mechikoff, 1992; Schultz, 2002; Verveer, 2001;), to date no one has studied how media coverage influences an audience’s attendance at and involvement in archery events. The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between media coverage and spectator attendance at the 42nd World Archery Championships in New York City. The variables studied were two: (a) media coverage, including TV, radio, sports pages of newspapers, and professional archery magazines; and (b) audience demographic characteristics, including gender, income, education, occupation, and marriage. After evaluating 250 usable responses, results indicate that radio coverage of the event and Internet communication were the primary media that influenced attendance at the event. In addition, TV advertisements, an archery Web site, and viewing the televised event also influenced attendance at the World Archery Championships.

INTRODUCTION
Global impact of sports
Sports influence our daily lives, playing a key role in our socialization and entertainment. The Summer Olympic Games and Winter Olympic Games, hosted every four years, attract billions of viewers who enjoy the competitions through the global media. In 1996, the Centennial Olympic Games, which were hosted by Atlanta, Georgia, attracted almost a quarter million people and media representatives to the city to enjoy the gala. It was estimated that an additional 1.5 billion people watched the games through network and cable television (Marketing Matters, 1996). Verveer (2001) stated that the Sydney Olympics were broadcast to 220 countries and territories, making them the most-watched television sports event in history. In Dayan and Katz’s view (1995), the hallmark of media events is their rarity and, therefore, their ability to interrupt our daily lives; media events are live and unfolding, and both broadcasters and audiences adjust their schedules in order to attend them (1995).
Importance of media coverage

The growth of modern sports is considered to provide an interesting example of globalization. Sports not only provide an attraction to bring people together, they also work to attract media involvement. A comparative study of television coverage in the context of sports (Bernstein & Blain, 2003) reported that the opening ceremony at the Barcelona Olympics drew 28 broadcasters from around the world. The media includes not only broadcasters but newspapers, magazines, books, movies, and the Internet. The media often serve the interests of people who have power and wealth, usually emphasizing images and messages consistent with dominant ideologies. The impact of global processes on sports may emphasize either globalization or processes such as Americanization, modernization and post-modernization, as well as cultural imperialism and cultural dominance (Donnelly, 1996).

Through television and the other media, we can appreciate the outstanding performances of elite athletes. This process will get more people involved in sports, bringing more media participation, creating a positive circle. The more sports broadcasts, the larger the audience involved in sports. According to the Web site Tour de France á la Voile 2002, during 2001, 1,027 programs about the Tour de France were broadcast. The advertising value of the 2001 Tour de France television coverage has been estimated at 42 million francs (we141.lerelaisinternet.com). Do sports depend on the media? Do the media depend on sports? In reality, they have a reciprocal relationship, depending on each other. Sports produce a unique form of news and entertainment. Media coverage of sports enhances enjoyment of daily life. However, keep in mind that mass media do not shape sports, but rather intensify and extend the process and effects of commercialization of sports. They bring us information, interpret it for us, and entertain us. This process “re-presents” reality. As Real and Mechikoff (1992) state, specific media technology and commercial advertising provide the structure through which the public accesses media sports. Sporting events are becoming more common in society because of media that provide a connection between sports audiences and favorite teams and athletes. Sports have many dimensions, not just the shape presented by the media. And there is much more to the media than sports. In newspapers, sports sections provide more daily coverage of sports than any other single topic receives elsewhere in the edition. Televised sports events, a major part of programming, have continued to gain advertising revenue. A number of channels are now exclusively dedicated to sports and sports events, focused media packages satisfying people’s demonstrated needs.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This study may be the first one of how media coverage influences audience attendance at archery events. Undoubtedly, without mass media and adequate audiences participating in archery events, sponsorship and the general awareness of archery would not grow; archery as part of major competitions could even be terminated.

The International Archery Federation (FITA) Congress held in Helsinki in 1955 introduced the “FITA Round,” which to today’s audiences likely would seem a very boring competition format. From 1955 until 1985, world championships were to be determined in a “Double FITA Round,” comprising a similarly dull format. It was, in short, a style poorly suited to the modern broadcasting style because it lacked excitement. Therefore, in 1988 FITA introduced the “Grand FITA Round,” which later became today’s “Olympic Round.” The new formats were meant to enhance interest in archery within the media.

With the FITA revisions in mind, the main purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between media coverage and a major archery event held in New York City. It is important to consider this relationship, because our ideas about sports are formed by the images and messages throughout sports media. The study included the following aims:

  1. To identify the relationship between media coverage and the archery event.
  2. To explore the demographic characteristics of audiences involved in archery.
  3. To investigate the media sources used by persons in deciding to attend the World Archery Championships.
  4. To analyze the relationship between the audience’s involvement in FITA and the purchase of merchandise at or related to archery events.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Relationship of sports and the media

Sports and the media are no doubt two of the most prevalent elements in contemporary society. As we know, mass media play an important part in American industry, and not just in relation to sports. On the other hand, sports themselves, at all levels, are approached as a business (some as multimillion-dollar businesses); they rank 11th among America’s industries, by size (Meek, 1997). The value of media coverage generated by a sports event is often built into estimates of that event’s economic effect (Dwyer et al., 2000; Higham, 1999). How do the two giant industries sports and media establish and cement their symbiotic relationship in order to benefit each other? During leisure time, people have such choices as to watch television, read magazines, or play sports; mass media and sports, in this aspect, fall in the same dimension, but in direct competition with each other. A North American folklore has developed involving watching sports on television (Wenner & Gantz, 1998). However, mass media have in fact done much more for the development of sports than most people imagine (P.E. Centre Web site).

Sports and mass media clearly rely on each other to prosper. The mass media profit from offering a valuable commodity, sports information, which the public seems to want; sports, in turn, gains popularity and wealth by offering broadcast rights (Smith & Blackman, 1982). Heinemann (n.d.) describes the mutual interests of sports and mass media as follows:

Sport has become an essential part of the entertainment program of the mass media; simultaneously there is another advantage for sport: the widespread coverage of sport via the mass media contributed to its popularization. Interest in a particular sport rises considerably when its television coverage is extensive. (¶ 5).

Mass media’s role in this particularly reciprocal relationship centers on the huge injection of money it provides to sports; this creates an ever-ascending spiral that has meant better media coverage of sports, better sports equipment and facilities, larger sports audiences, additional sponsorship opportunities, and larger athlete and staff salaries. Mass media benefits, on the other hand, from using sports as a powerful promotion outlet attracting advertising contracts and the viewing public’s attention, thanks to exclusive sports information. The symbiotic relationship between sports and mass media creates nothing less than a win-win strategy.

The importance of media coverage

The mass media are becoming steadily more dependent on sports, which can be seen in all media coverage. USA Today, presently the widest circulating daily newspaper in the nation, has a sports section occupying more than 25% of the editorial space for each issue (National Register Publishing, 1993). The all-sports television networks (e.g., ESPN) are exclusively devoted to sports coverage and serve at least 95 million households worldwide (Baker & Boyd, 1997). The powerful Web site Yahoo Sports delivered full coverage of the 1998 Olympic Winter Games in seven different languages, giving 1.5 million global users a quick and easy experience of events in Nagano (Yahoo.com, 1998). These examples demonstrate that mass media rely on sports and use sports’ worldwide popularity to their great advantage.

The effects of media coverage on the sports industry have also become particularly apparent over the last few years. According to an informal survey ranking coverage, conducted by Latelinenews.com, sports news in June 2003 was fifth in importance out of all news programming and related hits (Latelinenews.com, 2003). Furthermore, a survey of spending habits conducted by Outsports.com showed that 79% of the site’s readers attend at least three fee-for-admission sporting events annually and buy an average of some 4.5 sports-related articles of clothing every year (Outsports.com, 2002). With the prevalence of personal computers and Internet access, online sports services, with their strong consumer base, have become big business, with purchases reaching $3 billion in 2003 (Schultz, 2002). Such evidence shows that sports today are not simply competition or even entertainment; they are also an essential part of our daily life, one of the most important variables within the “consumer black box.”

METHOD
The purpose of this research was to fully explore the relationship between media coverage and the sport of archery, by analyzing the audience at an archery event, the 42nd World Archery Championships. (The event marked the 100th anniversary of FITA world-championship competition and was held in New York City.) The predictor variables were (a) media coverage (that is, TV, radio, newspapersports pages, and professional archery magazines); and (b) audience demographic characteristics including gender, income, education, occupation, and marital status.

Concerning sampling strategy, Rea and Parker (1997) state that “a crucial question at the outset of a survey research project is how many observations are needed in a sample so that the generalizations can be made about the entire population” (p. 114). The present researchers distributed questionnaires at the 42nd World Archery Championships, outside the entrance to the archery field. They later collected the completed surveys from audience members at the same place. This procedure generated a response of 169 completed surveys.

The instrument used for data collection was a four-part survey questionnaire (Appendix A) designed by Shih (1998). Each part of the instrument had 25 questions pertaining to TV, radio, newspaper, magazine, and Internet sports coverage. Respondents were asked to indicate how much they had been influenced by the particular media in terms of their decision to become involved in the event. As recommended by Ary et al. (1996), Babbie (1989), and Rea and Parker (1997), a 5-point response scale was used, with responses ranging from “low” to “high,” plus the option “not available” for respondents not having access to a particular media source. To assure reliability and validity of the instrument, the questionnaire was drawn from Shih’s published instrument from his “Study of the Relationship between Media Coverage, Audience Behavior, and Sporting Events” (1998). Using the split-half technique with the questionnaire’s reliability coefficients, a measure of 0.86 was found for media coverage. The present researcher modified the questionnaire for application to the archery event, testing the factor analysis to determine the involvement factor.

Version 11.0 of the SPSS program for Windows was utilized to analyze the data from the questionnaires. First, the frequencies and percentages of demographic characteristics were analyzed in terms of the structure and distribution of the subjects. Second, the raw score, the mean, and the standard deviation for each question were measured by the SPSS program. Third, the questionnaire was tested with the Cronbach’s alpha tool (which provides reliability oefficients); furthermore, statistical t-testing, one-way ANOVA, regression, and logistic regression were used in seeking significant factors influencing individual decisions to become involved in the 42nd World Archery Championships.

Each question’s use of a 5-point scale meant all answers constituted categorical data, not continuous data; hence, all answers were ordinal in nature rather than interval or ratio data. Logistic regression analysis, in such a case, can pinpoint the best-fitted, most reasonable model describing the relationship between the criterion and predictor variables (Hosmer & Lemeshow, 1989). The odds ratio, which is the outcome of logistic regression, provides a fairly comprehensive view of results interpreting their relationship. Hosmer and Lemeshow (1989) furthermore state that “the odds ratio is defined as the ratio of the odds for predictor variables equal to one (likely) to the odds for predictor variables equal to zero (unlikely).” Therefore, an odds ratio obtained via logistic regression was the key to the present interpretation of results concerning the surveyed audience’s purchase of merchandise related to the archery event.

RESULTS
The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between media coverage of and audience involvement at a major archery event. The data were collected from 169 subjects attending the 42nd World Archery Championships in New York City as spectators. Study results are presented in two sections: (a) a description of the population and demographic data; and (b) statistical analyses including factor analysis, reliability analysis, t-testing, one-way ANOVA, regression, and logistic regression measuring how much influence media had in determining the audience for this world championship event.

A total of 250 questionnaires were distributed to spectators entering the archery field area; 169 valid questionnaires were returned, for an overall response rate of 67.6% (Tables 1 and 2).

Factor Analysis

Factor analysis of the event attend items allowed for one factor to be extracted; therefore, we combined all the involvement items and used the combined score for the dependent variable in the subsequent analysis. The eigenvalues from the “greater than 1 criterion” are shown in Table 3.

Reliability Analysis
Cronbach’s reliability alpha showed that the involvement items’ internal consistency reached alpha = .9407; all items were highly intercorrelated, and the average item-total correlation was .8256.

T-test

For event attend items, the paired t-test of gender was tenable, at .05 level of significance, t(167) = .944, p = .347, as shown in Table 4. Hence, no evidence from the sample suggests that males and females had differential degrees of involvement in these world archery championships.

For event attend items, the paired t-test of marital status was also tenable, at .05 level of significance, t(167) = -1.114, p = .27, as shown in Table 5. Hence, no evidence from the sample suggests that single and married participants had differential degrees of involvement in the championships.

ANOVA
For event attend items, the one-way ANOVA for income level proved statistically significant, F(2, 167) = 4.789, p<.05, as shown in Table 7. As to post hoc comparisons, only the income categories “US $35,000–$65,000” and “above US $65,000” reached the specified .05 significance level, t(167) = 1.831, p<.05, as shown in Table 6. We therefore concluded there was sufficient evidence from the sample to suggest that participants with different incomes, particularly the groups with annual income of $35,000 or above demonstrated statistically distinct degrees of involvement in these world archery championships.

For the event attend items, the one-way ANOVA for education level was tenable, at the .05 level of significance, F(2, 167) = .315, p=.73, as shown in Table 8. Hence, there is no evidence from this sample suggesting that participants of different education levels had differential degrees of involvement in the championships. Also in terms of the event attend items, the one-way ANOVA for number of children was tenable, at the .05 level of significance, F(2, 167)=.529, p=.59, as shown in Table 9. No evidence from this sample suggests that involvement in the archery event varied with the number of one’s children. For event attend items again, the one-way ANOVA for age was tenable, at the .05 level of significance, F(2, 167) = .472, p=.625, as shown in Table 10. Again, no evidence from this sample suggests that participants of different ages had different degrees of involvement in the championships.

For the event attend items, the one-way ANOVA for years of participation was tenable, at the .05 level of significance, F(2, 167) = .862, p=.424, as shown in Table 11. Hence, no evidence was obtained from the sample to suggest that likelihood of involvement in the 42nd World Archery Championships varied with the number of years one had been involved in the sport of archery.

Regression Analysis

To develop a scale of enjoyment, we used Internet column, on-site commentator, newspaper sports-page column, TV commentator, professional archery magazine editor, and radio commentator as the predictor variables, with involvement in the 42nd World Archery Championships as the criterion variable. Multiple regression analysis was used to test the amount of influence the six predictor variables wielded in terms of enjoyment derived from event participation. The multiple regression analysis yielded a significant result: .58, F (6,162 )=36.48 , p<.05, shown in Table 12. The R-squared value indicates that about 58% of the variance in involvement in the event is explained by the six predictor variables. During post-test procedures, only radio commentator and Internet column reached the specified .05 significance level, t(1) = 3.166, p<.05 and t(1) = 1.559, p<.05 respectively, as shown in Table 12. Hence, we concluded there is enough evidence from the sample to suggest that media coverage, particularly radio comment and Internet postings, have a significant, positive influence on enjoyment associated with event participation.

As to the scale of attendance activities, we took into account the same six predictor variables and criterion variable as used for the enjoyment factor. From the multiple regression analysis a significant result was obtained, .599, F (6,162 ) = 39.86 , p<.05, as shown in Table 13; the R-squared value indicates that about 60% of the variance in involvement in the event is explained by the six predictor variables. During the post-test procedures, TV advertisement, archery Web site, and televising of the event showed significant influence on attendance activities, with respective findings of t(1) = 4.122, p<.05, t(1) = 2.406, p<.05, and t(1) = 2.169, p<.05, as shown in Table 13. There is enough evidence, we therefore concluded, present in the sample to suggest that media coverage—particularly TV advertising, archery Internet sites, and televising of events—had a significant, positive influence on attendance at the 42nd World Archery Championships.

In our evaluation of purchases of archery merchandise, an extremely skewed outcome from our Number 8 demographic question prompted us to merge the original 11 categories within two groups, under US $100 and above US $100. Logistic regression was first used to test the relationship between the set of predictor variables and the criterion variable and then to detect which predictor variables, if more than one, were effective predictors of archery merchandise purchase.

Results of logistic regression were significant in that the obtained likelihood ratio showed at least one predictor variable contributing significantly to archery merchandise purchase, χ² (6, N = 169) = 36.92 , p<.05, as shown in Table 14. As for post-test procedures, on-site display appears to be the only effective media coverage prompting purchases of merchandise (χ² (1, N = 169) = 36.05 , p<.05). The value of the odds ratio indicates that purchase of archery merchandise was 1.29 higher among participants who had viewed an on-site display than among those not viewing an on-site display; on-site display, then, can be regarded as an effective predictor of archery merchandise purchase.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
This study was designed to analyze both an audience at and media coverage of the 42nd World Archery Championships in New York City. (It was during this global archery event that New York City made its enthusiastic resolution to host the 2012 Olympic Games.) In Central Park on-site media such as a movable large-screen TV “wall,” experienced broadcasters and announcers, and attention-grabbing televised entertainment drew busy New Yorkers to consider the archery event being staged in their city and even to become involved in it. In addition, leading sports publications and broadcasts had joined the professional archery magazines in publicizing, to varying degrees, this biennial event.

A quantitative methodology was used to collect data from persons attending the archery event as audience members. The topic of media influence on audience involvement at an archery event had not previously been much explored. The present study described the demographics of an archery event audience and explored factors influencing attendance by this audience along with its enjoyment of the event. The demographic variables were chosen to aid understanding of the characteristics of the sample; the logistic regression method was subsequently used to search for the factors which statistically influenced attendance and enjoyment. A total of 250 questionnaires were distributed, 169 of which were returned and found valid. The overall response rate, then, was 67.6%.

Demographically speaking, this study found that two income groups (“US $35,001–$65,000” and “above US $65,000”) were most likely to attend the archery event. In terms of media influence, involvement in the archery event was most likely to occur in the presence of radio and Internet publicity about the event, according to the results. Other media predictors of attendance found by the study are TV advertising, archery Web sites, and televising of an event. Purchases of archery-related merchandise were influenced most strongly by on-site displays, the main predictor of such purchases.

In general, most of the respondents reported enjoying the 42nd World Archery Championships, and many of them said they were willing to participate in similar events in the future. Involvement with archery in the future questionnaire items drew a positive response in 83.4% of cases. An even larger 97.6% of the audience reported satisfaction with the event. In sum, the study showed that both the International Archery Federation and the New York City Organizing Committee performed to an excellent standard and contributed to creating potential archers and archery audiences for the future.

Contact Information:
Ping-Kun Chiu
250 Wenhua 1st Rd., Kweishan
Taoyuan, 33333
Taiwan

REFERENCES
Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., & Razavieh, A. (1996). Introduction to research in education. Orlando, FL: Rinehart and Winston.

Babbie, E. (1989). The practice of social research. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Baker, A., & Boyd, T. (1997). Introduction: Sports and the popular. Out of bounds (pp. xiii-xviii). Indianapolis: Indiana University Press.

Bernstein, A., & Blain, N. (2003). Sport, media, culture: Global and local dimensions. London: Frank Cass.

Birrell, S., & Loy, J. W. (1979). Media sport: Hot and cool. International Review of Sport Sociology, 14, 5–19.

Blinde, E. M., Greendorfer, S. L., & Shanker, R. J. (1991). Differential media coverage of men’s and women’s intercollegiate basketball: Reflection of gender ideology. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 15, 98–114.

Dayan, D., & Katz, E. (1995). Political ceremony and instant history. In A. Smith (Ed.), Television: An International History (pp. 169–188). Oxford: Oxford University Press,.

Donnelly, P. (1996). The local and the global: Globalization in the sociology of sport. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 20(3), 239–257.

Duncan, M. C. (1993). Beyond analysis of sport media texts: An argument for formal analyses of institutional structures. Sociology of Sport Journal, 10, 353–372.

Dwyer, L., Mellor, R., Mistilis, N., & Mules, T. (2000). A framework for assessing “tangible” and “intangible” impacts of events and conventions. Event Management, 6, 175–189.

Heinemann, K. (n.d.). Sport in the mass media. Paper presented at the IEC Scientific Conference. Retrieved June 21, 2003, from http://www.blues.uab.es/olympic.studies/doping/heinemann3.htm

Higham, J. (1999). Commentary—Sport as an avenue of tourism development: An analysis of the positive and negative impacts of sport tourism. Current Issues in Tourism, 2, 82–90.

Hosmer, D. W., & Lemeshow, S. (1989). Applied logistic regression. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Marketing matters (1996). The Olympic Marketing Newsletter. Published by IOC
Marketing Department.

Mullin, B. J., Hardy, S., & Sutton, W. A. (2000). Sport marketing. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Latelinenews.com coverage ranking survey. (n.d.). Retrieved June 21, 2003, from http://latelinenews.com/top_lx/english/index.shtml

Meek, A. (1997). An estimate of the size and supported economic activity of the
sports industry in the United States. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 6(4), 15–21.

Working press of the nation. (1993). New Providence, NJ: National Register Publishing.

Outsports.com spending habits survey. (2002). Retrieved June 21, 2003, from http://www.outsports.com/mediakit/spending.htm

Sport and the media. (n.d.). Retrieved June 21, 2003, from http://www.physicaleducation.co.uk/gcsefiles/Sport_and_the_Media.htm

Real, M. R., & Mechikoff, R. A. (1992). Deep fan: Mythic identification, technology, and advertising in spectator sports. Sociology of Sport Journal, 9, 223–229.

Schultz, B. (2002). History. Sports broadcasting (pp. 16–20). Woburn, MA: Focal Press.

Shih, C. P. (1998). A study of the relationship between media coverage, audience behaviors, and sporting events: An analysis of Taiwan professional baseball booster club members. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Northern Colorado.

Shilbury, D., Quick, S., & Westerbeek, H. (1998). Strategic sport marketing. St. Leonards, New South Wales, Australia: Allen & Unwin.

Smith, G. J., & Blackman, C. (1982). Background of the study. Sport in the mass media (pp. 1–5). Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: Canadian Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation.

Tour De France à la Voile (2001). Tour de France à la Voile 2001: Press review synthesis.
Retrieved July 20, 2003, from http://we141.lerelaisinternet.com/synth/2001.htm

Verveer, P. (2001, July). Telecommunications and the Olympics Games. IEEE Communications Magazine, July, 69–70.

Wenner, L. A., Gantz, W. (1998). Watching sport on television: Audience experience, gender, fanship and marriage. Media Sport.

Yahoo.com (1998, February 4). Yahoo delivers full coverage of 1998 Winter Games in seven languages. Retrieved June 21, 2003, from http://docs.yahoo.com/docs/pr/release147.html

2017-08-07T15:41:45-05:00January 7th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off on Impact of Media Coverage of the 42nd World Archery Championships on Audience Attendance and Purchases

Describing Sport Management Practitioners’ Information Technology (IT) Competence and Training Needs

**ABSTRACT**

This descriptive, exploratory research aimed to describe sport management practitioners’ information technology (IT) competence, usage rates, and training needs. Specifically, the research examined how IT software training affects IT competence and usage rates. In addition, the research examined the effect of IT usage rates on IT competence. The study extended to 10 software packages typically integrated into sport management curriculums. Participants included 126 practitioners from four areas of the sport industry: collegiate athletic departments, collegiate conference headquarters, major league professional franchises, and minor league professional franchises. Data were analyzed via the t-test and analysis of variance. The findings and their implications for future development of IT curriculums within sport management programs are discussed.

**INTRODUCTION**

For the present study, the researchers generally defined information technology (IT) as the tools and processes used for identification, organization, and manipulation of facts called data. These tools and processes include computers and software that organizations typically employ to complete daily, weekly, monthly, or yearly business transactions. Proper use of these tools and processes enables practitioners and organizations to accomplish regular tasks efficiently, while keeping information and transactions secure within their software. Software examined for this study included two types, basic and advanced. Basic IT comprised e-mail, PowerPoint, and word-processing software; advanced IT comprised spreadsheet, database-management, statistical-analysis, Web-design, program-management, ticketing-systems, and desktop-publishing software.

Technology has beset universities and the workplace, and higher education has been immersed in a major educational reform movement since IT’s advent. Organizations worldwide deem workplace implementation of IT an inevitable business strategy (Chow & Choi, 2003). Internal and external demands to integrate IT into most business facets drive human resource departments to become increasingly “IT-wise,” lest even the most capable leaders fail to grasp the full, advantageous potential of strategic use of IT.

Within the sport industry, IT utilization is transforming the way managers conduct business operations. Joseph calls IT skills important, especially for business organizations, within which these skills “will have a major bearing on the quality of decision making” (2002, p.120). To clarify, while the human side of management is extremely important and will never be disregarded, the development of human resource skills can improve decision making. Business managers are giving ever more weight to hiring individuals who understand computers and information systems (Mondy, Noe, & Premeaux, 2002). Expertise in contemporary technology continues to amplify in complexity: The comprehension and competencies working sport managers need have outpaced academic sport management programs’ ability or opportunity to facilitate the learning of pertinent IT (Turner & Stylianou, 2004).

Technology’s continuing development will impact the sport industry and sport management curriculums (Hums & Stephens, 1995); coordinators of sport management programs, therefore, need to assess how their curriculums are progressing. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology Initiative on Inventing the Organizations of the 21st Century included eight areas of focus to ensure future success. Two of these were (a) individual skills and (b) the impact of IT (Malone, Morton, & Halperin, 1996). The rapid expansion of technology into every aspect of contemporary sport management suggests that the 21st-century sport manager must establish and maintain IT proficiency.

It falls to our academic sport management programs to prepare future managers to do this. Ample IT courses must be offered to meet the needs of the many segments of the sport industry. Standards for sport management curriculums have been prescribed by NASPE-NASSM and incorporate content areas intended to familiarize students with a body of knowledge essential to a variety of sport careers. The content areas include sport management and leadership, sport governance, ethics, legal aspects of sport, economics, budgeting and finance, sport marketing, socio-cultural dimensions of sport, inter-personal/professional relationships, and communication and technology.

These elements of a standard curriculum optimally prepare graduates to meet most sport career demands. An exception, however, is technology. Discussions with numerous faculty and practitioners suggest that they perceive student competence in information technology to be neglected. Those responsible for guiding and operating sport management academic programs need to pay closer attention to technology’s ever-changing exigencies, demands that will shape their students’ careers. The single course currently allowed to meet the NASPE-NASSM communication and technology standard appears to be insufficient. (Even it is not solely dedicated to IT.) The level of IT competence contemporary sport managers need is only obtained through the development of a variety of skills via numerous courses incorporating an array of techniques.

The need for IT-competent practitioners in the field of sport, then, creates a parallel need within sport curriculums for vigorous, germane IT emphases. First and foremost, faculty-driven strategic planning for enhanced development of future professionals requires assessment of current trends in IT use and knowledge among practitioners. Planned interventions in sport management organizations by human resources staff help constituents pinpoint human resource concerns related to trends in technology, including potential deficiencies.

Human resource management personnel are inundated with training and career-development offerings related to IT. No other area has prompted such a flood of workplace-based instruction (Mondy, Noe, & Premeaux, 2002). Robbins (1998) states that human resources interventions related to IT usually center on internal issues of human development and process improvement. This focus compares to the strategies utilized in higher education to evaluate student development and performance.

Demand for sport managers with IT skills relevant to the chosen professional area should lead faculty to gather and employ information on IT needs; they should initiate departmental- or program-level interventions addressing the appropriateness of their existing sport management curriculums, in light of that information. When they set out to assess skill development among their students, institutions must use applicable industry input. By providing technology training appropriate to the specific technology requirements of students’ chosen professions, an institution not only enhances student learning, it secures a more effective academic climate and a relevant educational experience, one efficiently accommodating contemporary business trends.

Society’s and sport agencies’ dependence on computers has demanded major changes in the way sport managers work. No agency is free to ignore the constantly changing stream of interrelated societal and technological trends. Business and academic organizations alike, though they exercise only limited control over certain external and even internal forces affecting their enterprises, should understand that efforts to increase their control via technology can indeed further their managerial or administrative goals. Organizations that acknowledge IT’s unrelenting expansion and their need for greater mastery of its prerequisites can proactively turn technology into organizational strengths. The bottom line is that IT tools are a necessity for sport managers at all levels, in all specialties. Future sport managers need to fully develop their IT competency.

**METHOD**

_Participants_
Participants in the study (n=126) were sport management practitioners drawn from the following industry areas: collegiate athletic departments, collegiate conference headquarters, major league professional franchises, and minor league professional franchises. These practitioners were contacted through letters mailed to sport organizations listed in _The Sports Address Bible & Almanac_ (Kobak, 2000). The letters invited readers to participate in our study. A total of 469 letters were sent; 53 were returned to sender for various reasons, leaving 416 surveys assumed received by the sport organizations. Of 416 potential respondents reached, 126 (30%) proceeded to complete our survey via the Internet.

Training Hours/Week Competence
IT Type Yes No 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Word Processor 92 34 12 32 27 55 4 13 46 63
PowerPoint 57 69 75 43 5 3 30 34 32 30
2013-11-27T19:29:20-06:00January 7th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Facilities, Sports Management|Comments Off on Describing Sport Management Practitioners’ Information Technology (IT) Competence and Training Needs

Sports 2.0: A Look at the Future of Sports in the Context of RFID’s “Weird New Media Revolution”

Abstract

This article examines the myriad ways in which RFID (Radio Frequency
Identification) technology will impact the world of sports. In this paper,
we look at how this “weird new media revolution” will have
a transformative impact both on the games themselves and the fans’
experience at the stadium. We will examine how RFID is being used in sport
applications from golf to soccer to racing of all forms to add previously
unimaginable real-time richness and accuracy to the sports. We will also
look at the use of RFID in ticketing and payment applications that will
add security, control, and new revenue streams to sports operations, while
giving enhanced value and services to the fan. We will conclude with a
look at what this new version of Sports 2.0 will mean in the future both
in and out of the sporting arena.

Introduction

RFID stands for Radio Frequency Identification, and it is poised to be
the successor technology to the bar code in identifying “things”
in our economy. Using small microchips embedded in objects, RFID can create
unimaginable levels of control and visibility in a whole host of applications.
Evidence of such can be seen in the mandates of major retailers, such
as Wal-Mart, Target, and Albertson’s, along with the U.S. Department
of Defense, to have their suppliers begin affixing RFID-enabled labels
to shipments of goods to their distribution centers (Morphy, 2005, n.p.).
As outlined in Table 1, RFID is currently being employed in a whole host
of areas.


Table 1 – RFID Applications

Traditional RFID Applications Emerging RFID Applications
  • Security/Access Control
  • Electronic Article Surveillance
  • Asset/Fleet Management
  • Mass Transit
  • Library Access
  • Toll Collection
  • Animal Identification
  • Warehouse Management
  • Supply Chain Management
  • Reverse Logistics
  • Shipment Tracking
  • Asset Tracking
  • Retail Management
  • Document Tracking
  • Anti-counterfeit
  • Advance Access Control
  • Mass Transit– Monthly and Single Trip
  • Airline Baggage Handling
  • Aircraft Parts and Tools
  • Health Care Applications
  • Regulatory Compliance
  • Payments

Source: Wyld (2006, p. 159)


While creating new efficiencies in distribution and new opportunities in
retail may mean billions of dollars and while the application of RFID in
pharmaceutical and animal tracking applications may save thousands of lives,
the wide world of sports is no doubt one of the sexiest applications for
RFID on the horizon. It is also an area where RFID can enhance both the
participant and the spectator experience, impacting people’s lives
in a positive manner. As such, innovative companies across the globe are
rushing into sports applications for the technology.

Take golf balls for example. Anyone who has picked-up a golf club has
been there. You hit your drive off the 1st tee, and it goes, and goes,
and goes – where? All golfers have spent countless hours combing
the banks of creeks, looking in crevices, and pouring through thickets
in often fruitless searches for their wayward shots. But what if there
was a high-tech way for the ball to tell you where it was and guide you
to it? Radar Golf is a small company, based in Roseville, California,
seeking to RFID-enable the game of golf with its Radar Golf System. Such
a prospect led Stephanie Stahl (2005), the editor of InformationWeek,
to say that finding lost golf balls may be the “killer app”
for RFID in the consumer world.

Radar Golf has developed a golf ball that is manufactured by a Chinese
contractor that has an RFID tag embedded inside its core. The ball has
been certified as conforming to the rigorous standards of the United States
Golf Association (USGA), enabling it to be used in tournament play. The
company’s patented Ball Positioning System (BPS) is built into a
handheld unit, which is essentially an RFID reader that transmits a specific
radio frequency signal to search for the lost ball. It provides a visual
LCD signal strength display and pulsed audio tone feedback to the golfer
looking for his/her ball, with the beep increasing (like a Geiger counter)
as the golfer nears the location of the wayward ball. The BPS presently
has a detection range of up to 100 feet (LaPedus, 2005). The company began
marketing the system in mid-2005. The Radar Golf System retails for $249,
which includes a dozen golf balls (additional dozen balls sets retail
for $39). It plans to license the technology to other golf ball manufacturers
to equip their branded balls with RFID tags (LaPedus, 2005).

We are seeing that, as with the golf ball example, games themselves can
be enhanced through the use of RFID technology. We are also seeing that
RFID can be used to secure ticketing and enhance the in-stadium spectator
experience. RFID can also create new metrics – and new gambling
opportunities – in the sports world. In this article, we will take
a look at Sports 2.0, as RFID helps reshape the sporting life and experience.

RFID on the Field

RFID is fast getting “in the game,” as we are seeing exciting,
in-event applications of RFID technology in sports ranging from the “beautiful
game” to road racing of every form.

Football (Soccer)

Indeed, the most noteworthy in-game example to date comes in the world’s
most popular sport – football (or soccer as we in the U.S. know
it). The Erlangen, Germany-based Fraunhofer Institute for Integrated Circuits
has developed an RFID-based system to give complete visibility to the
soccer field. Both the ball and a shin-guard on each of the twenty-two
players are outfitted with RFID-chips, and readers positioned to scan
the entire field can read the position of both the players and the “Smartball”
up to two thousand times each second. The Fraunhofer system will not only
allow for referees to consult the data to potentially aid in correctly
calling disputed goals and troublesome off-sides penalties, but it will
permit soccer clubs and their fans to access performance metrics on their
teams and individual players. Although FIFA (Fédération
Internationale de Football Association), soccer’s world governing
body, passed on using the technology for the 2006 World Cup, the system
is likely to be approved for tournament use later this year (Collins,
2005).

Racing

We have also seen that RFID can add value and visibility to racing events
of all types. One of the longest standing applications of RFID has been
in the area of marathon racing. The ChampionChip Company pioneered the
use of RFID-chips attached to runners in the Berlin Marathon in 1994.
Since then, the firm’s namesake tracking device has been worn by
millions of road racers, cyclists, in-line skaters, cross-country skiers,
and triathletes in thousands of events worldwide. The tracking device,
which uses passive RFID technology with antennas built into specially-designed
mats over which the athletes must pass, allows for the racers’ real,
net times to be recorded as they pass the start-finish and other intervals
along the course, as well as the “value-add” of for real-time
tracking via the Internet for friends, fans, press, and family members.
It has been used in the New York City Marathon, where five thousand runners
per minute crossed the thirty-six meters-wide starting line at the Verrazano
Narrows Bridge. And in the June 2000 Broloppet Half Marathon, in which
runners raced across the new bridge connecting between Denmark and Sweden,
a record 79,837 competitors were tracked using the ChampionChip (ChampionChip,
2006). Commenting on the state of marathon technology, Judith Donohue,
manager of the HP’s New England Initiative, whose firm has worked
with the Boston Marathon for over a decade, observed: “We’ve come
a long way from when we used to draw a line in the street with chalk”
(quoted in Ewalt, 2004, n.p.).

RFID has moved into a motor racing. Texas Instruments has developed the
Race Timer system for motorcycle racing, in which an RFID transponder
is placed either on the motorcycle’s front fender or in the rider’s
chest protector. The system is a quantum improvement over the former use
of single-file gates and either manual recording or scanning bar codes
attached to riders’ helmets. With the TI system, the size of motorcycle
events can grow significantly, supporting up to one thousand riders in
a single event (Texas Instruments, 2005). RFID has also been adopted by
the IRL (Indy Racing League), with active transponders being positioned
in the same point in the nose of the Indy Car and with antennas positioned
around – and in – the track. With speeds of over two-hundred
miles per hour, the system can distinguish between two or more racecars
passing the same point within 10,000ths of a second of each other. The
system allows for real-time race tracking via the Internet for all IRL
races, including the Indianapolis 500, where antennas are installed in
the track surface in the Indianapolis Motor Speedway’s famous Yard
of Bricks at the start-finish line of the “Old Brickyard”
as the track is known (Karle, 2004).

While NASCAR has not announced a similar in-race system, the fast-growing
racing circuit is employing RFID for tracking tires used by all racing
teams in its three racing circuits. The system will enable for centralized
control over the Goodyear tires used in NASCAR events, in order to allow
for an even playing field between the race teams and better control over
tire stock (Anonymous, 2005). RFID also presents a very practical advantage
over the former bar-code based labeling of tires for NASCAR events. Goodyear
had in the past attempted to track tire inventory for race teams by applying
bar code labels to the sidewalls. However, they quickly found that the
bar code labels could be intentionally rubbed off or smudged when in use
(Sullivan, 2005). With the new system, the tire inventory is centralized
by NASCAR, and race officials can use handheld readers to quickly scan
both cars and the pits to make sure they have the proper quantity and
type of tires in their possession before, during, and after the races
(Swedberg, 2005).

Finally, in a slower speed form of racing, RFID has been introduced in
the ancient sport of pigeon racing. In the past, to determine timing and
ranking in pigeon races, handlers had to catch pigeons one-by-one and
read an identification number from metal rings attached to their legs.
Today, the standard practice for almost a decade has been to attach RFID-enabled
plastic bands to the birds’ legs with the positioning of antennas
at points along the course from the release point to the home loft (Anonymous,
1997).

RFID in the Arena

RFID-enabled Paper Ticketing

There have been exciting developments recently to integrating RFID chips
into a paper-form ticket. Doing so has several advantages, including:

  • Preventing counterfeiting
  • Promoting security
  • Inhibiting the secondary “black market” for prized tickets
  • Facilitating faster patron entry into sports venues.

The recently concluded FIFA World Cup in Germany was the largest use
of RFID in sports ticketing to date, with:

  • Twelve venues
  • Sixty-four games
  • 3.5 million tickets (Blau, 2006a).

FIFA had previously employed RFID-equipped tickets in its “dry
run” for the 2006 event in staging its Confederations Cup in Germany
in 2005 (Blau, 2006b).

The World Cup ticketing was based on Philips Electronics MIFARE technology,
enabling ticket-holders to gain entrance to the venues by sliding their
tickets into fixed scanners, positioned at the entry gates to the stadiums.
As can be seen in Figure 1, the tickets are personalized with the name
of the ticket buyer. While FIFA collects identification information on
all ticket buyers, the RFID tag does not contain info on the ticket holder,
only access information for the FIFA ticketing system (Stensgaard, 2006).

Figure 1 – World Cup Tickets

Figure 1

 

Besides security concerns, one of the principal reasons FIFA chose to
employ RFID-based security in its ticketing for the World Cup was out
the organizer’s desire to significantly cut down on the secondary
or “black market” for these highly coveted tickets, which
FIFA prohibits from sale or transfer outside of family members except
in cases of undue hardship (Blau, 2006b). According to Carrie Johnson,
an e-commerce analyst for Forrester Research, the size of the global secondary-ticket
market is difficult to precisely pin down, with projections ranging anywhere
from $2 to $25 billion annually (cited in Sandoval, 2006). While World
Cup tickets for this year’s event averaged approximately a $180
face value, one estimate from the United Kingdom projected that FIFA leaves
as much as $3.6 billion (US) on the table by not charging market rates
for tickets (Blau, 2006a). FIFA’s prohibition on illegal ticket
sales, whether by what are known as “ticket brokers,” “scalpers,”
or “touts” by region, has not stopped those engaged in the
banned practice from trying to sell tickets. In fact, bids rose to $3000
or more per seat on eBay for World Cup tickets, even though the buyer
had no assurance they could actually enter the venue with a ticket, the
name on which could not possibly match the ticket holder (Kelly, 2006).
Buyers were betting on the fact that gate personnel would not bother checking
the ticket holder’s ID to match the name on the ticket to the person
presenting it at the turnstile – a bet lost by some fans, according
to media reports from the game sites. One sports industry analyst stated
that better control over the pricing of tickets brings FIFA additional
worldwide revenues in areas such as licensing, sponsorship, and broadcast
rights through marketing the World Cup as a “people’s game,”
rather than as entertainment for the wealthy and powerful (Higgitt, 2006).
Still, it is not a fool-proof system, as even one member of the FIFA Executive
Committee, Ismail Bhamjee of Botswana, was asked to leave Germany during
the World Cup when it was discovered that he had sold match tickets for
the England versus Trinidad and Tobago game for more than three times
their face value (Anonymous, 2006a).

Certainly, preventing counterfeit tickets from being presented at the
turnstile is a concern of any promoter of a sporting event – from
one as large as the World Cup, as pricey as the Super Bowl, or for hosts
of professional sports events and even prestigious amateur competitions,
such as college football games and skating championships. For instance,
at this year’s Super Bowl XL in Detroit, local police arrested twelve
people on felony charges for selling counterfeit Super Bowl tickets, and
seventy-three bogus tickets were confiscated from people who tried to
enter Detroit’s Ford Field on the day of the game (Anonymous, 2006b).

How can RFID help to curb counterfeiting? In November 2005, Texas Instrument’s
Tag-It RFID inlays were embedded into all 100,000 tickets for the Tennis
Master’s Cup 2005, held in Shanghai, China. The event organizers
used sixteen stationary readers at the entrance gates to Shanghai’s
Qi Zhong stadium, which is slated to host the event for three consecutive
years through 2007. As Yang Yibin, Deputy General Manager of New Sports
and Entertainment (Shanghai) Ltd., a subsidiary of the Ba-Shi Group, explained:
“Prior to using RFID, spectators were required to purchase a pre-event
ticket holder and then exchange it for the physical ticket at the stadium
box office. This new system not only offers peace of mind that the tickets
purchased are genuine, it puts tickets in the purchaser’s hands faster
and provides more efficient entry come event time” (quoted in O’Connor,
2005b, n.p.). In addition to the gate verification of the ticket, New
Sports and Entertainment outfitted event staff members with handheld RFID
readers to spot check tickets inside the stadium for an added level of
security (O’Connor, 2005b).

Many of the best practices and lessons learned emerging from the FIFA
World Cup and other high profile events will be employed at the next global
sports event on the horizon at which organizers plan to use RFID-based
ticketing – the 2008 Beijing Summer Olympics (Campbell, 2005).

RFID-enabled Smart Cards – The “Golden Ticket”?

The hybrid solution of RFID-enabled, paper-form tickets may be a short-term
solution to the problems of crowd control, security, and resale prevention.
Indeed, the longer-term solution may be a move away from hard copy tickets
entirely to an electronic “Golden Ticket,” – a smart
card solution that offers benefits in both ticketing and payments.

That is the vision of a number of competing firms today. Stadiacard,
a division of the UK-based TelCo Management Limited, is working with several
leading football clubs in the UK in proving the viability of such a contactless
card solution. Most notably, there is the example of the Liverpool Football
Club, which has been at the forefront of using contactless technology
in its stadium since 2003. For the upcoming 2006/2007 season, the Liverpool
Club, winners of the 2006 FA Cup, will be shifting its season ticket buyers
entirely to Stadiacard’s contactless solution, providing them with
what they are branding as the Fan Card. Liverpool has now equipped its
historic Anfield Stadium, which dates back to 1884, with readers at all
of its entry gates. The Liverpool Club believes that the system will not
only speed entry of season ticket holders into the stadium, but also eliminate
the possibility that these buyers could resell individual game tickets
from their season-long package or provide them to “ticket touters.”
This is because the Fan Card will be required for entry throughout the
season. If sold, the season ticket purchaser would lose the right to enter
the stadium for not just a single match or series of games, but the remainder
of the season. While Anfield only has a capacity of 45,400 seats, the
Liverpool club has issued over 130,000 Fan Cards to date. Supporters who
are not season ticket holders can use their Fan Cards as ID when purchasing
individual game tickets via the phone or the Internet (Stadiacard, 2006).

A similar solution, also aimed for the football market, is being marketed
by the St. Andrews, Scotland-based Scotcomms Technology Group. Scotcomms
TeamCard contactless solution is being employed by several leading football
clubs in the UK, including:

  • Bolton Wanderers
  • The Celtic (Glasgow)
  • Chelsea
  • Crystal Palace
  • Everton
  • Ipswich Town
  • Millwall (Scotcomms Technology Group, 2006).

One of the significant benefits of such contactless ticketing is the
ability of the sports’ team/club to derive incremental revenue from
what would have been unused tickets by season ticket holders. One of the
British football clubs making use of the TeamCard, the Bolton Wanderers,
has turned a season ticket holder’s inability to attend a game into
a “win-win” for all parties. Gareth Moores, a director of
the club, estimates that 5-8% of season ticket holders can not attend
a given game. The Bolton Club rewards season ticket holders who notify
the organization in advance of their inability to attend a game with £10
worth of points loaded onto their TeamCard. These points can then be used
for purchasing either refreshments in the club’s stadium or team
merchandise from the club. The club is then able to resell that unused
seat – for an average profit of £15. Likewise, football clubs
have begun to offer seating upgrades to better sections on an availability
bases to card holders, with the ability to charge their registered payment
option immediately should they choose to sit in a better seat for an event
(Thomas, 2004).

There is also a significant security benefit to the use of contactless
tickets for sporting events in general and for football specifically.
Unlike with paper-form tickets, if a fan’s ticket card is lost or
stolen, the team can simply issue a replacement and cancel out the original
lost item. Also, the team retains significant control over the use of
the card, which is especially important in venues such as football in
England, where crowd rowdiness and hooliganism has been of paramount concern
in recent years. If a team can identify trouble making fans, they can
simply deactivate that person’s contactless ticket card and ban
them from the grounds. In the same fashion, as has been done in Liverpool
since the 2003/2004 season, stadium security and support personnel have
themselves been issued contactless cards, allowing for the club to maintain
required staffing levels throughout the stadium and monitor staff movement
for both management and payroll purposes. Finally, since the fan’s
card also operates as a form of payment in the stadium, the benefits of
contactless payments at concessions and merchandise sales locations can
be reaped. And, in the United Kindgom, unlike at sports venues in the
United States, where sports betting is not legal in the stadium setting,
fans can place wagers before and even during games using the same contactless
ticket card (Scotcomms Technology Group, 2006; Stadiacard, 2006; and Thomas,
2004).

Michael Richardson, Chief Technology Officer of New York-based Smart
System Technologies (SST), points to the fact that professional sports
teams “have to look for new ways to raise incremental revenues beyond
selling seats” (quoted in Collins, 2004, n.p.). Contactless payment
technologies, integrating RFID into either credit cards or key fobs, may
indeed be the key to unlocking more revenue potential from fans inside
the stadium. Early trials of such systems have been promising. In one
pilot, fans using the PowerPass system of New York-based Smart System
Technologies (SST) consistently bought double the amount of brewskis,
hot dogs, foam fingers, and other concession items, while speeding the
transactions (between two and six times faster than cash or credit card)
and taking cash-handling out of the equation (Collins, 2004).

This season, Major League Baseball’s Texas Rangers have worked
in partnership with Chase to provide their fans with the convenience of
contactless payment technology. During the 2005 season, only one concession
stand at Ameriquest Field in Arlington, Texas was even equipped to accept
credit-card payments. For this season, the Rangers have installed more
than two-hundred contactless credit-card terminals throughout the ballpark,
at a cost of approximately $150 each. According to Scott Rau, a Senior
Vice President for Chase, contactless cards can take thirty seconds off
the time required for each cash transaction. Thus, fans can speed through
the process of buying concessions and souvenirs in the stadium, enhancing
the spectator experience by reducing their time waiting in lines and not
enjoying the event. Rangers Vice President Brad Alberts is excited about
the new technology, believing “it’s easier for the fans, it’s quicker
for the fans, and people will probably spend more money” (quoted
in Koenig, 2006, n.p.). The system is expected to grow in use as Chase
distributes more of its branded credit cards with contactless payment
capabilities. As of June, the company has distributed over seven-million
of their “blink” cards in major metropolitan areas in the
U.S., including the Dallas/Fort Worth Metroplex, home of the Texas Rangers
(Koenig, 2006).

At present, MasterCard is undoubtedly the leader in the field. MasterCard’s
PayPass technology has been implemented to date in a total of nine Major
League Baseball ballparks and seven National Football League stadiums
(Anonymous, 2006c). These current installations are detailed in Table
2 below.

Table 2 – Stadiums in the United Stateswith PayPass Installations


Major League Baseball National Football League
  • Atlanta Braves (Turner Field)
  • Boston Red Sox (Fenway Park)
  • Cincinnati Reds (Great American Ballpark)
  • Los Angeles Dodgers (Dodger Stadium)
  • New York Mets (Shea Stadium)
  • New York Yankees (Yankee Stadium)
  • Philadelphia Phillies (Citizens Bank Park)
  • San Diego Padres (PETCO Park)
  • St. Louis Cardinals (Busch Stadium)
  • Baltimore Ravens (M&T Bank Stadium)
  • Detroit Lions (Ford Field)
  • Kansas City Chiefs (Arrowhead Stadium)
  • New York Giants/New York Jets (Giants Stadium)
  • Philadelphia Eagles (Lincoln Financial Field)
  • Seattle Seahawks (QWEST Field)
  • Washington Redskins (FedEx Field)

Source Info: MasterCard International – June 2006


From the perspective of Lawrence Flanagan, Worldwide Chief Marketing
Officer for MasterCard International, “stadiums represent the ideal
venues to showcase the promise of PayPass,” which the firm is fast-expanding
in its credit card operations (quoted in Anonymous, 2006c, n.p.).

What’s the next level for contactless payments? Well, it can be
found in Atlanta’s Philips Arena. In a test that began earlier this
year, 250 season ticket holders of the Atlanta Thrashers NHL hockey team
and the Atlanta Hawks NBA basketball team are receiving a specially NFC
(near field communication)-enabled Nokia cell phone which they can then
use in the arena for concession payments. Moreover, the cell phones can
detect the passive RFID tags embedded in “smart posters” positioned
around Philips Arena. With the phone held within a few inches of the poster,
they can download news, graphics (such as pictures of players or wallpaper
images) and promotional video clips which are presently inaccessible by
the general public (O’Connor, 2005c). According to a recently released
study from Philips Electronics and Visa International on the utility of
Near Field Communication (NFC) and contactless payment technology, consumers
like the convenience, ease of use, and “coolness” of making
transactions with their mobile phones (Philips Semiconductors, 2006).

Analysis

Will RFID be “the next big thing?” At this point in the technology’s
life cycle, it is too early for anyone to tell, but the stars certainly
seem to be in alignment for the next decade to be a tremendously exciting
one. Many share the sentiment of Kuchinskas (2005) that: “RFID will
change business and society as much as cell phones and the Internet have”
(n.p.). Futurist Paul Saffo believes that we are in the early stages of
“a weird new kind of media revolution,” in that “RFID
will make possible new companies that do things we don’t even dream about”
(quoted in Van, 2005, B1). Saffo views RFID as a media technology, making
it possible for what he categorizes as “’smartifacts’
or intelligent artifacts, that are observing the world on our behalf and
increasingly manipulating it on our behalf.” Saffo thus stresses
the importance of thinking outside the box on RFID and looking beyond
today’s problems to find “unexpected applications,”
which is where “the greatest potential for RFID lies” (quoted
in O’Connor, 2005a, n.p.).

Today, we are seeing the first fruits of this “weird” new
media revolution that RFID is sparking, including those found in the sports
field. What we are seeing with the advent of RFID in the sports marketplace
is the introduction of a technology that has the power to transform the
experience of playing and watching games. Sports 2.0 promises to be an
exciting – and richer – experience, and it will be interesting
to observe the innovations that will surely come over the next few years
as RFID-based applications become more commonplace in sporting venues.

What does all this portend for the “Average Joe Six-Pack”
sports fan? As a player, as a coach, as a spectator, and as a gambler,
RFID is on tap to transform the sports world over the next decade. We
will see RFID-based systems replace some of the fundamental rule elements
of sports, to the betterment of the game. After all, it is hard to believe
that in 2006, the way we measure first downs in football is with a chain!
We may also see the automation of some routine scoring and statistics
compiled in major sporting events, such as line crossings in a wide variety
of sports and distance calculations in golf. RFID will also bring heretofore
unimaginable levels of information and intelligence to our games. Already,
there is speculation that RFID may enable new forms of wagering on sporting
events with the new metrics that can be uncovered by RFID-chipping of
balls and players, making new opportunities for casinos and sports books.
In baseball for instance, RFID could enable gamblers to bet on things
– in real-time – like the precise distance of a home run and
the positioning of individual pitches. Finally, there is speculation that
some players and teams may not want to release such new statistics, such
as how far they ran during a soccer or football game, for fear of revealing
efforts that they may not be especially proud of. This is hardly information
overload; it’s revolutionary on many, many levels.

References

  1. Anonymous (2006a). “Top FIFA official admits World Cup scalping.” Reuters News Service, June 18, 2006. Retrieved July 1, 2006, from http://www.intix.org/news.php?ArticleID=2166.
  2. Anonymous (2006b). “Arrests made for selling phony Super Bowl tickets.” NFL.com, February 8, 2006. Retrieved June 16, 2006, from http://www.superbowl.com/news/story/9217319.
  3. Anonymous (2006c). “MasterCard PayPass to be deployed at Major League Baseball stadiums.” RFID News, April 5, 2006. Retrieved July 5, 2006, from http://www.rfidnews.org/news/2006/04/05/mastercard-paypass-to-be-deployed-at-major-league-baseball-stadiums/.
  4. Anonymous (2005). “Goodyear’s RFID technology has high-profile success.” Auto Racing Daily, November 23, 2006. Retrieved February 15, 2006, from http://www.autoracingdaily.com/article.php?cid=4058.
  5. Anonymous (1997). “Read/Write tags track homing pigeons.” Automatic I.D. News Europe, March 1997: 4.
  6. Blau, John (2006a). “Security scores big at World Cup tournament: FIFA’s soccer spectacle will use lots of technology to keep the games safe.” PC
  7. World, May 26, 2006. Retrieved June 1, 2006, from http://www.pcworld.com/news/article/0,aid,125910,00.asp.
  8. Blau, John (2006b). “FIFA criticizes World Cup data gathering: Organizers have required fans to provide data such as name, date of birth and passport number, but they are mum on what data will appear on RFID tags.” InfoWorld, April 12, 2006. Retrieved June 1, 2006, from http://www.infoworld.com/article/06/04/12/77384_HNworldcuprfid_1.html.
  9. Campbell, Anita (2005). “RFID tags in sports tickets: Update.” RFID Weblog, June 14, 2005. Retrieved June 18, 2006, from http://www.rfid-weblog.com/50226711/rfid_tags_in_sports_ticketsupdate.php.
  10. ChampionChip (2006). “ChampionChip technology.” Retrieved March 20, 2006, from http://www.championchip.com/home/index.php.
  11. Collins, Jonathan (2005). “Smart soccer ball misses its goal: Soccer’s international governing body has canceled plans to use an RFID-enabled scoring system at the 2006 FIFA World Cup international soccer tournament.” RFID Journal, December 5, 2005. Retrieved January 30, 2006, from http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/2029/1/1/.
  12. Collins, Jonathan (2004). “RFID enters the sports arena: Two NFL stadiums are leading the way in one company’s efforts to use RFID to speed payments, increase customer insight and boost consumer spending.” RFID Journal, July 30, 2004. Retrieved May 24, 2006, from http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/1068/1/1/.
  13. Ewalt, David M. (2004). “RFID in it for the long run: Gear from Hewlett-Packard turns Boston Marathon into a high-tech showcase.” InformationWeek,
  14. March 3, 2004. Retrieved July 5, 2005, from http://www.informationweek.com/story/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=19205568.
  15. Higgitt, Duncan (2006). “Still a fan’s World Cup?” Western Mail, June 10, 2006. Retrieved June 30, 2006, from http://icwales.icnetwork.co.uk/0100news/features/tm_objectid=17207626&method=full&siteid=50082&headline=still-a-fan-s-world-cup–name_page.html.
  16. Karle, Patrick (2004). “Indy 500 keeps score with RFID: Race officials use an active-tag system to drive real-time reports on racers’ performance.”
  17. RFID Journal, May 31, 2004. Retrieved February 14, 2006, from http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleprint/965/-1/1/.
  18. Kelly, Maxim (2006). “Tech sector set to score at World Cup.” Electric News, May 19, 2006. Retrieved June 16, 2006, from http://www.electricnews.net/ffocus.html?code=9688040.
  19. Koenig, David (2006). “Banking on credit cards at the ballpark.” USA Today, June 6, 2006. Retrieved June 20, 2006, from http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/techinnovations/2006-06-06-ballpark-devices_x.htm.
  20. Kuchinskas, Susan (2005). “RFID tags a booming biz.” Internetnews.com, (January 12, 2005). Retrieved from the web on January 16, 2005. Available at http://www.internetnews.com/wireless/article.php/3458331.
  21. LaPedus, Mark (2005). “Radar Golf claims breakthrough with RFID golf balls.” Silicon Strategies, (January 25, 2005). Retrieved from the web on February 12, 2005. Available at http://www.informationweek.com/story/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=57703713.
  22. MasterCard International (2006). “MasterCard PayPass – Frequently Asked Questions.” Retrieved June 30, 2006, from http://www.mastercard.com/us/personal/en/aboutourcards/paypass/faqs.html#1.
  23. Morphy, Erika (2005). “RFID is here: What is your customer plan?” CIO Today, (June 17, 2005). Retrieved June 21, 2005, from http://www.cio-today.com/news/RFID-Is-Here–What-Is-Your-Plan-/story.xhtml?story_id=1010000274YP.
  24. O’Connor, Mary Catherine (2005a). “RFID and the media revolution: Renowned futurist Paul Saffo predicts that RFID’s biggest impact will come from surprising applications.” RFID Journal, (April 13, 2005). Retrieved April 20, 2005, from http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/1508/1/1/.
  25. O’Connor, Mary Catherine (2005b). “RFID takes a swing at ticket fraud: By embedding RFID tags into tickets for the Tennis Masters Cup 2005, organizers were able to curtail counterfeiting, increase revenues and speed patrons’ entry into the stadium.” RFID Journal, (April 13, 2005). Retrieved May 14, 2006, from http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/2060/1/1/.
  26. O’Connor, Mary Catherine (2005c). “Sports fans use RFID to pay and play: A group of season ticket holders at Atlanta’s Philips Arena can use RFID-enabled cell phones to download video clips and pictures of players—and, eventually, to make purchases.” RFID Journal, (December 16, 2005). Retrieved June 30, 2006, from http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/2051/1/1/.
  27. Philips Semiconductors (2006). “How would you like to pay for that? Cash, card or phone? Philips and Visa usability study shows consumers like the convenience of contactless payment using Near Field Communication.” Semiconductor News, April 5, 2006. Retrieved July 6, 2006, from http://www.semiconductors.philips.com/news/content/file_1231.html.
  28. Sandoval, Greg (2006). “Can the Net make ticket scalping legit?” News.com, June 5, 2006. Retrieved June 15, 2006, from http://news.com.com/Can+the+Net+make+ticket+scalping+legit/2100-1032_3-6079684.html.
  29. Scotcomms Technology Group (2006). TeamCard. Retrieved June 28, 2006, from http://www.scotcomms.co.uk/pdfs/teamcard_all.pdf.
  30. Stadiacard (2006). “Membership Card – One customer, one membership card and one record.” Retrieved May 12, 2006, from http://www.stadiacard.com/marketing/membership_card.html.
  31. Stahl, Stephanie (2005). “Editor’s note: RFID at the core of biz processes.” InformationWeek, January 31, 2005. Retrieved from the web on February 1, 2005. Available at http://www.informationweek.com/story/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=59100620.
  32. Stensgaard, Anne-Birte (2006). “Philips and the 2006 FIFA World Cup.” AME Info, June 8, 2006. Retrieved June 15, 2006, from http://www.ameinfo.com/88301.html.
  33. Sullivan, Laurie (2005). “RFID rolls into NASCAR races: Goodyear will provide to racing-teams tires that have RFID devices embedded into the sidewalls.”
  34. InformationWeek, November 28, 2005. Retrieved February 15, 2006, from http://www.informationweek.com/story/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=174401417.
  35. Swedberg, Claire (2005). “RFID tracks tires at NASCAR: Goodyear used handheld interrogators and embedded tags to keep track of leased racecar tires.” RFID Journal, November 25, 2005. Retrieved February 15, 2006, from http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/2006/1/1/.
  36. Texas Instruments (2005). “Sports timing: Changing the profile of racing events.” Retrieved July 7, 2005, from http://www.ti.com/rfid/docs/applications/sports.shtml.
  37. Thomas, Daniel (2004). “Sports clubs kick off with smart ticketing.” VnunetNews, February 6, 2004. Retrieved May 13, 2006, from http://www.vnunet.com/vnunet/news/2124268/sports-clubs-kick-smart-ticketing.
  38. Van, Jon (2005). “RFID spells media revolution, futurist says.” Chicago Tribune, 124(104) (April 16, 2005): B1.
  39. Wyld, David (2006). “RFID 101: The next big thing for management.” Management Research News, 29(4): 154-173. For a detailed and highly readable look at RFID technology, please consult the following report: Wyld, David C. (2005) RFID: The right frequency for government, A research monograph published by The IBM Center for the Business of Government, Washington, DC, October 2005. Retrieved October 23, 2005, from http://www.businessofgovernment.org/main/publications/grant_reports/details/index.asp?gid=232.
2020-06-02T11:24:24-05:00September 9th, 2006|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Management|Comments Off on Sports 2.0: A Look at the Future of Sports in the Context of RFID’s “Weird New Media Revolution”

Letter to the Editor – The Sport Journal Pierre de Coubertin, arts administrator

Ed:

During the preparation of this issue of the Sport Journal, we received a piece sent to us by Mr. Raymond Grant, the artistic director of the 2002 Olympic Art Festival, reflecting on the historic and modern cultural aspects of the Olympic Games. Although the article does not fall within the normal editorial plan of the Sports Journal, it is very insightful and we felt, as such, it would be of interest to the readership

With the permission of the author, we are reprinting the piece titled “Contrast, Culture, and Courage: A Cultural Administrator’s Tribute to Pierre de Coubertin” in the form of a letter to the editor. We trust the readership will find as much value in reading the piece as we did.

As Beijing, Vancouver, and London prepare to host future
Olympic Games, it seems fitting to remind readers of The Sport Journal
of the value of cultural programs within the Olympic Movement and the
connection between artists and athletes. That value, and the corresponding
cultural development surrounding the successful hosting of the Olympic
Games, has deep roots within the Olympic Movement thanks to the vision
of Baron Pierre de Coubertin. de Coubertin was both a sports and arts
administrator.

The recently completed Turin Olympic Winter Games and Athens Olympic
Games warrant reflection brought about by the cultural legacy of Pierre
de Coubertin. The very public challenges surrounding the hosting of the
Olympic Games, the reforms of the IOC, and the successful return of the
Summer Games to Athens suggests that this contemporary period in the Olympic
Movement has elements of the historic.

The on-going research of Norbert Muller, Manfred Messing, and Research
Team Olympia of the University of Mainz (Germany) in their new publication
From Chamonix to Turin, holds significant value in the study
of cultural programs within the context of the Olympic Games. In their
research on the meaning of the cultural program for spectators in Salt
Lake in 2002, the authors found that 84% of respondents agreed with the
statement that “The Olympic idea combines sport and art.”
This significantly high response compares with 72% for the Olympic Games
in Sydney 2000, 23% for Atlanta 1996, and 40% for Barcelona 1992. Can
this be a trend in the growth of awareness and significance of Cultural
Olympiads and Olympic Arts Festivals? If so, as the communities of Beijing,
Vancouver, and London prepare to host upcoming Olympic Games, much can
be celebrated and learned by engaging artists and encouraging their role
in community development and the creative economy.

The magic of the Olympic Movement – its power, if you will, is
in how individual communities who are invited to host the Games reinvigorate
the Movement. And, local participation is a defining element of this reinvigoration.
In her article More Than a Game. The Value of Arts Programming to
Increase Local Participation
, author and Olympic researcher Beatriz
Garcia points to “ways in which some of the less known – but
more meaningful – dimensions of the Games could place participation
back at the centre of the [Olympic] celebration.”

The arts were always at the center of Pierre de Coubertin’s vision
for the Olympic Movement. In the years of preparation required to deliver
a credible Olympic Cultural program, I have found that de Coubertin’s
unflagging belief in the power of music, dance, and words was sustaining.

In Dr. Norbert Muller’s opus Olympism, we have the wonderful benefit
of the selected writings of Pierre de Coubertin. To any cultural administrator
of the Games, the historical event of the Olympic Movement in Paris in
May of 1906 is singularly defining. The festivities in the great amphitheater
of the Sorbonne, which ended the 1906 Advisory Conference in Paris (the
Conference itself was held in the historic foyer of the Comedie Francaise)
on the inclusion of the arts and humanities in the modern Olympics, is,
for all intents and purposes, the birth right for those of us who use
the arts to help define the atmosphere of the Modern Games.

In a circular letter to the International Olympic Committee (IOC) dated
April 2, 1906, de Coubertin invites members to an Advisory Conference
to determine “to what extent and in what form the arts and literature
can participate in the celebration of the modern Olympiads.” Thanks
to the vision of de Coubertin, his question is as applicable today for
the organizing committees of Beijing, Vancouver, and London, as it was
for the nascent Olympic Movement of 1906.

The announcement of the 1906 Advisory Conference was attached to the
invitation to IOC members to attend the Games in Athens. As completely
as de Coubertin believed in the merger of sport and art, the summoning
of this “Consultative Conference on Art, Letters, and Sport”
was not completely altruistic. In his Olympic Memoirs, de Coubertin said
“I would be able to use this (the conference) as an excuse for not
going to Athens, a journey I particularly wished to avoid.”

Excuses aside, de Coubertin, I believe, understood that artists provide
communities with a sense of place and the Olympic Movement of 1906 was
missing a vital link to this sense of place. A distinct challenge remains
today as arts and culture programs within the context of host organizing
committees fight for survival, respect, resources, and presence. de Coubertin’s
vision of Olympism – what the Olympic Movement aspires to be –
is inextricably linked to the arts and humanities “harmoniously
joined with sports.”

Celebrating the achievements of athletes alongside the accomplishments
of artists became the vision of the 2002 Olympic Arts Festival.

In an article I wrote for The Olympic Review entitled Contrast, Culture,
and Courage
, I reflected on the cultural legacy of de Coubertin citing
the seminal meetings he convened. In that article, I said ‘I will
leave it to greater minds to decide if the 2002 Olympic Arts Festival,
in any substantive way, realized this broad de Coubertin vision’.

Now, I am especially encouraged by the results of the studies conducted
by Research Team Olympia in 2002 and just released in which the researchers
(Muller, Messing, and Preub) say, “It can be concluded that the
Salt Lake 2002 Olympic Arts Festival was a relatively successful one.
Although not all of the projects could be realized, the understanding
of the inner connection of Olympic sport and art was higher than at three
former (Summer) Olympic Games and the biathlon spectators were more involved
in visits of the Cultural Program. It seems that the Arts Festival in
Salt Lake 2002 has set a benchmark for Winter Games which needs further
study to measure the achievements of cultural programs in the future.”
Hopefully, the sports and arts administrators of the Games of Beijing,
Vancouver, and London, can engage in, commission, and contribute to this
Olympic research area.

Participation is the key to promoting the role culture plays in great
social gatherings. And, the Olympic Movement stands as the great social
gathering of our time.

I posit that the Olympic Movement is furthered, as well, by the perspective
and point of view of artists, for it has been said that “only artists
find the uncommon in the commonplace.” I, for one, look forward
to the role that gifted artists, poets, playwrights, and essayists will
play in future Games. If history is any judge, they will leave a cultural
legacy for the Games and the communities which host them.

Twenty-five years after the 1906 Advisory Conference, de Coubertin reflected:

I have already repeated – so often that I am a trifle ashamed
of doing so once again, but so many people still do not seem to have
understood – that the Olympic Games are not just ordinary world
championships but a four-year festival of universal youth, “the
spring of mankind”, a festival of supreme efforts, multiple ambitions
and all forms of youthful activity celebrated by each succeeding generation
as it arrives on the threshold of life. It was no mere matter of chance
that in ancient times, writers and artists gathered together at Olympia
to celebrate the Games, thus creating the inestimable prestige the Games
have enjoyed for so long.

Today, the Olympic Games have as compelling an obligation and opportunity
to gather writers and artists together as they did in 1906.

If “this was how the reunion of the muscles and the mind, once
divorced, was celebrated in the year of grace 1906,” let us look
toward years of grace in 2008 in Beijing; 2010 in Vancouver; and 2012
in London.

2015-03-27T14:13:02-05:00September 8th, 2006|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Facilities, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off on Letter to the Editor – The Sport Journal Pierre de Coubertin, arts administrator
Go to Top