2008 – Page 20 – The Sport Journal

The Individual Offensive Strategies of Taiwanese Collegiate Students in Basketball

Submitted by: Chia-Ming Chang, Cheng-feng Chiu And Steve Chen

Abstract

The
purpose of this study was to investigate the preferential
individual offensive strategies of male Taiwanese collegiate
students. A self-designed questionnaire was utilized to evaluate
students’ perception on offensive strategies. Subjects were
asked to select top-5 preferential strategies from nine choices
as they were put at specific spots based on the role of a
position. Among the 185 completed surveys, the number of valid
surveys was 163 that yielded a 78% return-rate. The statistical
methods for analyses included descriptive statistics and Chi-square
analyses. The alpha level was set at .05. Based on the results
of Chi-square, there were significant differences existed
among subjects’ choices on offensive strategies (p<0.05).
No significant differences (p<0.05) were found when subjects’
choices were compared at different side of blocks. The descriptive
analyses indicated that the number-one offensive choice at
the both sides of low post area for center, power forward,
and point guard were “pivoting”, “screening”,
and “catching the ball”, respectively. The favorite
offensive strategies of small forward and shooting guard were
“catching the ball” and “getting open”
at the right block, and their choices were simply switched
at the other block. At the top of the key, the number-one
offensive choice for center, power forward, small forward,
shooting guard and point guard were “setting screen”,
“pivoting”, “getting open”, “getting
open”, and “catching the ball”, respectively.
Apparently, subjects’ top-three choices on offensive strategies
had clearly demonstrated the common mentalities that were
instructed by many basketball coaches. However, since “shooting”
was not a top-3 choice at any spot for any role, coaches may
need to encourage students to take more shots.

Introduction

Purpose
of the Study
Basketball is one of the most popular sport activities among
Taiwanese collegiate students. It is also the most popular
sport among all of the PE curriculums at the collegiate level
in Taiwan. Basketball involves several basic playing skills
such as running, jumping, catching, passing, rebounding, shooting,
dunking and various combinations of movements. Due to variances
in size, fitness level, specific technique, and offensive
strategies, players usually are assigned to different playing
roles and positions. Generally their roles can be divided
into the following five different positions: power forward,
small forward, center, point guard, and shooting guard (Lee,
2000; and Huang & Wang, 2002). Based on players’ specific
roles on the court, each position usually would demonstrate
a unique style of play at different spots of the court. For
examples, forward players can be extremely active around the
free-throw line extended area. They should be able to score
both in the paint and perimeter. They are usually the best
scorers of the team, and should involve in some rebounding
and passing duties. This is why most of forwards need to possess
great size, speed and leaping ability (Wu, 1998). Most of
the centers work in an area less than 5m away from the basket
(Wong, 1999b). They work at an area that is always under heavy
traffic. Since they usually initiate the attack at the low-post
area, they must possess skills to catch the ball firmly, seal
off the defender, and use all kinds of fake moves to score
(Wong, 1999b; Wang & Wang, 2002). Centers must have ability
to score one-on-one and secure rebounds. Defensively, they
usually provide the best help on penetrations (Wang, 1997b);
therefore, the strength of the center may indicate the success
of the team. Guards are usually the “core” of a
basketball team. They are usually the leaders and the organizers
of the team offense. They normally operate at the top of the
key and try to create shooting opportunities for other teammates
by making good pass and penetration. They should be a good
long and mid-range shooter, and also score in penetrations
(Huang & Wang, 2002). In order to fully maximize the playing
ability of each specific position, coaches would also teach
necessary techniques to elevate players’ individual skills.
Possessing strong individual offensive skills is an essential
element to build the team offenses and success. The skills
that players have acquired would naturally become preferential
moves under circumstances.

Many
of the previous researches on offenses had geared toward the
analyses of a team’s offensive patterns (Chao & Chao,
1995; Lu, 1996; Pan, 1997; Wong, 1998 and 1999a; and Hsu 2002).
They provided less information on individual offensive skills
and teaching tips for collegiate students to learn the individual
skills. The authors of the article wish to examine how collegiate
students perceive a specific situation and formulate their
offensive strategies at certain locations. Hopefully, this
study can provide useful concepts and norms to help students
build up understanding of the game and acquire proper offensive
techniques.

This
study examines the individual offensive strategies of students
by observing how they would initiate a movement in a designated
situation without concerning the presence of defenders. Although
in reality, the presence of defenders certainly would affect
a player’s determination on moves, this study would neglect
this factor and directly record the preferential response
of players at a particular location. Since there are always
some certain preferential acts that a person may engage based
on the human behavior, we can all assume that there must be
some types of preferential offensive movements that players
may like to make in certain situations. The purpose of this
study would attempt to investigate those preferential individual
offensive strategies of Taiwanese collegiate players. The
research questions would focus on how a player initiate the
decision to make a move at various spots based on players’
perceptions of playing roles.

Methods

Subjects
and Scope of the Study
Two hundred and seven male students of the Mingchuan University
who have enrolled in the Spring Semester of the year 2001
were invited to participate in this study. They came from
seven different basketball classes and were varied in class-levels.
Researchers had obtained 185 returned questionnaires, and
22 copies were invalid. The number of valid copies was 163
that yielded 78% of return-rate. The average height and weight
of subjects were 170.72 + 7.9 cm and 62.57 + 10.02 kg, respectively.

Research
Tools
This study utilized a self-designed questionnaire to evaluate
students’ perception on offensive strategies. The contents
of the survey included two parts. The first part contained
demographic information such as height, weight, class-level,
varsity experience, and playing position. The second part
of the survey examined players’ offensive strategies. Three
spots were designated for the purpose of the study. They were
both right and left low-post blocks, and top of the key. Each
student had viewed and perceived the question based on the
role of a specific position, such as center, point guard,
or small forward, etc. Then he would select the top five preferential
choices as the offensive strategies according to the location
and the role that he had perceived. Nine offensive strategies
that were available for chosen included:

dribbling,
pivoting,
catching
the ball,
shooting,
cutting
down,
dribble
penetration,
getting
open,
setting
a screen, and
rebounding.

These
strategies were common basketball skills that were adapted
by players in different situations (Pan, 1997; Wang, 1998;
Huang & Wang, 2002; and Wang & Wang, 2002).

Data
Analyses
There were163 valid copies available for data analyses after
eliminating 22 copies of invalid questionnaires. The data
were analyzed by the SPSS for Window 10.0 program. The statistical
methods for analyses include descriptive statistics and Chi
square analyses. The alpha level was set at .05?

Results

General
Information of Descriptive Analyses
The general information listed subjects’ class-level, varsity
experience, and playing position. Basing on the class-level
distribution, sophomore was the biggest class that consisted
50 subjects (30.5%). Twenty-eight seniors (17.1%) made up
the smallest class. Most of the subjects (N= 89; 54.3%) had
participated for the intramural basketball teams or even high
levels before; and there were 75 (45.7%) subjects who have
never played an official basketball game yet. In term of players’
playing positions, 65 (39.6%) people had played forward position.
The numbers of players who played at guard and center positions
were 73 (44.5%) and 26(15.9%) respectively.

Preferences
on Offensive Moves at Each Designated Spot
The descriptive analyses concluded the following statements.
At the right low-post block, the number one offensive choice
for center, power forward, small forward, shooting guard and
point guard were “pivoting”, “screening”,
“catching the ball”, “getting open”, and
“catching the ball”, respectively. At the top of
the key, the number one offensive choice for center, power
forward, small forward, shooting guard and point guard were
“setting screen”, “pivoting”, “getting
open”, “getting open”, and “catching the
ball”, respectively. The favorite offensive strategies
of center, power forward, and point guard at the left low-post
block were exactly the same as theirs at the right side. The
exceptions were the choices of small forward and shooting
guard. Their choices just simply switched as the side had
changed. The Table 1. listed the top-3 preferences of subjects
at each different spots.

Table
1. The top-3 preferences of subjects at each different spots

Location	Preference	Role of Positions
		Center	Power Forward	Small Forward	Shooting Guard	Point Guard
Right block	1	(2)	(8)	(7)	(3)	(3)
	2	(5)	(7)	(3)	(7)	(1)
	3	(1)	(5)	(6)	(6)	(8)
Top of the key	1	(8)	(2)	(7)	(7)	(3)
	2	(7)	(3)	(3)	(8)	(7)
	3	(9)	(6)	(8)	(3)	(1)
Left block	1	(2)	(8)	(3)	(7)	(3)
	2	(5)	(6)	(7)	(3)	(7)
	3	(6)	(9)	(8)	(6)	(1)

*
(1) dribbling, (2) pivoting, (3) catching the ball, (4) shooting,
(5) cutting down, (6) dribble penetration, (7) getting open,
(8) setting a screen, and (9) rebounding

Based
on the results of Chi-square, there were significant differences
existed among subjects’ choices on offensive strategies (p<0.05).
This means that students actually favor certain kind of choices
at each spot in term of viewing themselves through a specific
role of positions. However no significant difference (p<0.05)
was found when subjects’ choices were compared for different
side of blocks.

Conclusions
and suggestions

According
to results of the study, there were significant differences
existed among subjects’ choices (p<0.05) in term of viewing
from a specific role of positions. Since each position usually
has been trained to follow a specific role, the results of
the study clearly show this phenomenon. Perimeter players
such as point guard, shooting guard and small forward would
try to receive passes or get open for clear passes at the
low-post block. They are usually taught by the coaches to
get open in order to score an easy basket under the rim or
shoot from outside (Huang & Wang, 2002). Inside players
such as center and power forward would demonstrate the fundamental
low post move by showing “the pivot” move. They
were also taught to set screens at both high- or low-post
(Lu, 1996; and Wong & Shuei, 1998). Apparently, subjects’
top-three choices on offensive strategies have demonstrated
the common mentalities that were instructed by many basketball
coaches.

A
good sign to notify is that subjects did not perceive their
offensive strategies differently at the opposite side of the
block, either. This means that players may not decide to do
one thing at a particular side, but never intend to do the
same move at the opposite side. Otherwise, they choice will
become very predictable at one spot.
Surprisingly, “shooting” was not a top-3 choice
at any spot according to any role. This may indicate that
players are probably too cautious about their move, or they
are afraid of taking shots (perhaps due to lack of confidence).
Most of the coaches in the United States will emphasize the
importance of power plays. It is probably more appropriate
to see those who play at center and power forward positions
looking for shots more often (Wong, 1999b). Taiwanese coaches
may need to point out this fact during classes and practices.

References

Chao,
C.P., & Chao, J.C. (1995). Zone defenses in basketball.
University and College
Physical Education, 16, 66-74.

Hsu,
H.H. (2002). Three-men offense in basketball. University and
College
Physical Education, 60, 39-42.

Huang,
H.H., & Wang, L. (2002). Analysis of woman basketball
skills. Journal of Deh
Yu College of Nursing and Management, 17, 53-63.

Lee,
C.H. (2000). An easy way to learn basketball. Taipei, Taiwan:
Er-chiang Publishing.

Lu,
C.S. (1996). A study of male college Secondary Class basketball
players in attacked-
defense skill. Journal of National Art Institute, 59, 376-386.

Pan,
Y.H. (1997). The analyses of defensive and offensive strategies
in basketball.
University and College Physical Education, 32, 103-108.

Wang, T.M. (1997a). The team-offense skills and their instructional
designs for post
players in basketball. University Taiwan University Physical
Education, 28, 55-61.

Wang,
T.M. (1997b). Both offensive and defensive skills and their
instructional designs
for post players in basketball. University Taiwan University
Physical Education, 28, 63-72.

Wang,
Y.M., & Wang H.C. (2002). Different types of fakes in
basketball. Physical
Education of College and University, 60, 17-21.

Wong,
T.L., & Shuei, H.P. (1998). Move without the ball as an
offensive strategy in
basketball games. National Education, 39(2), 66-70.

Wong,
T.L. (1999a). Team offenses. National Education, 39(4), 34-39.

Wong,
T.L. (1999b). The offensive strategies of inside moves for
low post players.
Taiwan Sports, 102, 36-39.

Wu,
B.Y. (1998). Developing a forward player. Journal of Tungnan
College, 21, 219-224.

U.S. Sports Academy2015-10-24T01:31:39-05:00February 18th, 2008|Sports Coaching, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

An International Physical Fitness Test for the Arab World

Submitted by: Thomas P. Rosandich, United States Sports Academy

Abstract

The United States Sports Academy, in cooperation with Bahrain’s Supreme Council for Youth and Sports, presented the Arab world with its own international physical fitness test battery based on normative data collected from Arab youth ages 9 to 19 years. One of the few fitness tests developed outside the Western world, the test is believed to be the only one based on analysis of empirical data collected among Arab youth. It is designed to measure speed, strength, suppleness, and stamina, the basic components of any physical activity. Since its introduction to 199 physical education teachers by the president of the United States Sports Academy, Dr. Thomas P. Rosandich, more than 20,000 boys and girls have been tested with the comprehensive battery.

Test Battery

The test battery includes the following:

50-m test (relative power, speed)
Flexed-arm hang (relative strength, strength)
10-m shuttle run (relative power, speed, suppleness)
Back throw (absolute power, speed, suppleness)
1,000-m run (aerobic/anaerobic capacity, stamina)

This test battery has been adopted by more than 21 nations throughout the years.

1. 50-METER DASH

Equipment: Stopwatch

Procedure: A standing start is used; the hands cannot be touching the ground. On the signal “Come to your mark,” the testing participant stands with both feet behind the starting line, with one foot slightly advanced. When the participant is ready and motionless, the starter gives normal verbal instructions, “Set,” and after a brief pause, “Go.” The timer starts the clock when the participant moves. The participant sprints for 50 m, past the finish line, avoiding any tendency to slow down before crossing the finish line. Time in seconds and tenths of seconds is recorded.

2. FLEXED-ARM HANG

Equipment: Stopwatch, 4-cm-diameter bar whose height prevents participants from touching the ground

Procedure: The participant climbs a ladder near the bar until the chin is at bar level. The participant grasps the bar, keeping the hands shoulder width apart. The backs of the hands must be toward the face, with the thumbs under the bar. The chin should be level with the bar. On the command “Ready, go,” the participant removes the feet from the ladder. Simultaneously, an assistant removes the ladder and prevents any forward swinging of the legs. The stopwatch is started when the participant’s feet leave the ladder and is stopped when the chin falls below the level of the bar or when keeping the chin level with the bar requires tilting the head backward. Time in seconds is recorded.

3. SHUTTLE RUN

Equipment: Stopwatch, 2 wooden blocks (10 cm x 5 cm x 5 cm) per participant, flat course marked with 2 lines 10 m apart

Procedure: On the signal “Ready,” the participant places both feet behind the starting line with one foot slightly advanced. On the signal “Go,” the participant sprints to the opposite line, picks up a block of wood, runs back and places it on or beyond the starting line. Without pause, the participant runs to retrieve the second block and carries it back across the finish line. The participant correctly completes 2 trials, and the better of the 2 times is recorded. A trial is void if a block is dropped or thrown. Time in seconds and tenths of seconds is recorded.

4. BACK THROW

Equipment: 8-lb shot, tape measure

Procedure: The participant stands with his back to the throwing area, with an 8-lb shot cradled in both hands between the knees. The participant bends forward and downward and then throws the shot backward over the head, in a 2-handed throwing action. Measurement is made from the point of impact of the shot with the ground, to the inside edge of the foul line. The participant completes 2 trials, and the greater distance is recorded. Distance is recorded in meters and centimeters.

5. DISTANCE RUN

Equipment: Stopwatch, 200-m oval
Procedure: The distance run is 600 m for boys and girls 13 years old and under; 1,000 m for boys 14 to 19; and 800 m for girls 14 to 19. On the signal, “Ready,” the participants stand behind the starting line. When all participants are ready, they are given the command “Go” and are encouraged to run the distance in the fastest possible time. Walking is permitted.

Up to 30 runners may be tested at one time with accuracy and efficiency. Each runner will complete the required distance. For better control at the finish line, a chute may be made by tying ropes between high-jump standards. The timekeeper stands at the finish line. He has the only watch and calls out a time as each runner crosses the finish line. The fitness testing team records each runner’s time in minutes and seconds.

Author Note

Dr. Thomas J. Rosandich, president and chief executive officer, United States Sports Academy.

The author gratefully acknowledges the cooperation of the Bahrain Supreme Council for Youth and Sports is the preparation of the test battery and testing manual, from which the illustrations in this article were taken.

All correspondence concerning this article should be directed to the author at One Academy Dr., Daphne, AL 36526.

U.S. Sports Academy2016-10-12T12:12:41-05:00February 18th, 2008|Sports Exercise Science, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Body Composition, Strength, and Power of Female Volleyball Players

Submitted by: Jon YeanSub Lim, Northern State University

Abstract

This study investigated the effect of creatine supplementation on the body composition, muscular strength, and power of 36 female collegiate volleyball players across 10 weeks of training . The 19- to 26-year-olds were randomly assigned, in a double-blind fashion, to either a creatine treatment group (CT) (n = 18) or placebo control group (PC) (n = 18). During an initial loading phase comprising 5 days, the CT group ingested 5 g of creatine 4 times each day; during the maintenance phase that followed, CT group members consumed 5 g of creatine once a day. The PC group followed the same administration schedule but consumed a glucose placebo. All 36 athletes participated in a conditioning program focusing on weight training and plyometric training. Measures were taken before administration of creatine began, and also at the conclusion of the study, of body weight, lean body mass, percentage of body fat, 1-repetition-maximum bench press capacity, and vertical jump (VJ) ability. For both groups, bench press and VJ results improved significantly during the study, though improvement among members of the CT group was significantly greater than among the PC group, p < 0.05. Further, the CT group had significantly greater gains in body weight and lean body mass, with no change in body fat. The findings suggest that creatine supplementation in conjunction with a good conditioning program can improve athletic performance in female collegiate volleyball players.

Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Body Composition, Strength, and Power of Female Volleyball Players

Athletes have continuously sought elixirs to enhance their performance. Their use of oral creatine supplementation for this purpose has become increasingly popular in recent years. Creatine is an amino acid compound. Of the human body’s supply of creatine, approximately 95% is in skeletal muscles and about 5% is stored in the heart, the brain, and, in males, the testes (Walker, 1979). Creatine is synthesized by the liver, kidneys, and pancreas, with additional supply obtained by consuming fish, meat, and other animal products. It is converted to phosphocreatine, which is necessary to resynthesize adenosine triphosphate (ATP). During short-term high-intensity exercise, phosphocreatine is a primary source of energy for APT resynthesis.

Numbers of prior scientific studies show creatine supplementation to significantly increase creatine concentrations in skeletal muscle, a condition that accelerates phosphocreatine resynthesis (Balsom et al., 1995; Casey et al., 1996; Greenhaff et al., 1993; Harris, Soderlund, & Hultman, 1992). As a result of creatine supplementation, increased muscle creatine enhances athletic performance during high-intensity, intermittent exercise (Haff et al., 2000; Stout et al., 1999). Creatine supplementation also delays the onset of fatigue and facilitates recovery during repeated bouts of high-intensity exercise (Greenhaff et al., 1993; Hultman et al., 1990). Supplementation with creatine also has ergogenic effects on muscular strength and power (Bosco et al., 1997). Finally, creatine supplementation significantly increases body mass, with increased fat-free mass (Earnest et al., 1995; Kreider, Ferreira, et al., 1998; Kreider, Klesges, et al., 1996; Vandenberghe et al., 1997).

Although in growing numbers of studies creatine supplementation has been found to enhance performance during high-intensity, intermittent exercise, most studies have involved short-term supplementation and have not investigated supplementation in sports-specific settings. There have been few studies, for example, of creatine supplementation among female collegiate volleyball players.

Method

Participants
The study sample was 36 female collegiate volleyball players who had not supplemented with creatine within the 6 months preceding the data collection. The players (age = 20.6 ± 1.73 years, weight = 58.0 ± 2.2 kg, height = 176 + 8 cm) volunteered to participate in the investigation. All were currently engaged in resistance training and had 1 or more years of resistance training experience; all continued to train 3 times per week during the experimental period. Each participant completed a medical history, a lifestyle inventory, a training inventory, and an informed consent form before participating in the study. All procedures complied with human subject guidelines established by the U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare and the American Physiological Society. Participants were required to maintain their normal training, physical activity patterns, and dietary regimens throughout the study.

Experimental Design
The 19- to 26-year-old athletes were randomly assigned, in a double-blind fashion, to either a creatine treatment group (CT) (n = 18) or placebo control group (PC) (n = 18) group. During an initial loading phase comprising 5 days, the CT group ingested 5 g of creatine 4 times each day; during the maintenance phase that followed, CT group members consumed 5 g of creatine once a day. The creatine supplements were measured in 5-g quantities and placed in generic capsules coded for identification. The PC group followed the same administration schedule but consumed a glucose placebo. All 36 subjects participated in a conditioning program focusing on weight training and plyometric training.

Pre- and post-experiment testing determined body weight, lean body mass, percentage of body fat, 1-repetition-maximum bench press capacity, and vertical jump (VJ) ability. The bench press test using free weight constituted a of measure muscular strength. The vertical jump test was administered to measure muscular power. Body density was determined using the hydrostatic weighing technique. Body fat percentage and fat-free mass were calculated based on the body density values.

Statistical analyses were completed using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) (version 9.0). A one-way analysis of variance with repeated measures was conducted to make comparisons, both between groups and over time, of the measures for bench press, vertical jump, body weight, percentage of body fat, and lean body mass. Statistical significance was accepted at an alpha level of p < 0.05. Values presented in the results are means ± SD.

Results

Table 1 summarizes the results observed in terms of muscular strength and power measurements. Statistical analysis demonstrated that both the creatine treatment group and placebo group experienced statistically significant improvement in bench press and vertical jump after 10 weeks of training (see Figure 1). However, for both tests, the creatine treatment group improved to an extent that was, statistically speaking, more significant than the improvement shown by the control group (p < 0.05).

Table 1

2 Groups’ Pre- and Post-Experiment Measurements, Bench Press/Strength and Vertical Jump/Power

	Placebo Group (n = 18)	Creatine Group (n = 18)
Bench Press Pre Post	47.4 ± 5.8 kg> 50.3 ± 5.8 kg*	47.6 ± 5.0 kg 55.2 ± 5.0 kg*
Vertical Jump Pre Post	49.4 ± 1.6 cm 50.9 ± 1.7 cm*…	49.4 ± 2.6 cm 52.3 ± 2.1 cm*…

Note. Values are means ± SD; n = number of subjects. Bench press used was 1-repetition-maximum.
*Significant improvement, p < 0.05
…Significant treatment effect compared with placebo, p < 0.05

Figure1. Results of bench press and vertical jump measurements

Pre- and post-experiment measures of the players’ body weight, percentage of body fat, and lean body mass are presented in Table 2. Statistical analysis demonstrated that the CT group’s gains in body weight and lean body mass were greater than the PC group’s, to a statistically significant degree, with no change in percentage of body fat (p < 0.05). In the PC group, no statistically significant differences were observed between the pre- and post-experiment measures of body weight, percentage of body fat, and lean body mass .

Table 2

2 Groups’ Pre- and Post-Experiment Measurements, Body Composition

	Placebo Group (n = 18)	Creatine Group (n =1 8)
Body Weight Pre Post	63.5 ± 3.1 kg 65.7 ± 3.0 kg*	64.6 ± 2.9 kg 66.3 ± 2.7 kg*…
Percentage Body Fat Pre Post	17.7 ± 1.2% 18.4 ± 1.1%	17.5 ± 1.2% 17.4 ± 1.2%
Lean Body Mass Pre Post	52.2 ± 2.6 kg 53.6 ± 2.4 kg*	53.3 ± 2.3 kg *56.1 ± 2.6 kg…**

Note. Values are means ± SD; n = number of subjects.
*Significant improvement, p < 0.05
…Significant treatment effect compared with placebo, p < 0.05

Discussion

The present results support the findings of previous studies suggesting that creatine supplementation, in conjunction with a good conditioning program, can significantly increase muscular strength and power, to an extent that conditioning programs alone do not match (Haff et al., 2000; Stout et al., 1999). A number of mechanisms have been offered in explanation. First, creatine supplementation increases creatine and phosphocreatine concentration in skeletal muscle, which appears to be directly related to enhancement of force development (Balsom et al., 1995; Casey et al., 1996; Greenhaff et al., 1993; Harris, Soderlund, & Hultman, 1992). Enhanced ability to meet high demand for ATP during maximal exercise may help explain the improvement in muscular strength and power.

The present study’s finding of an increase in lean body mass and body weight with creatine supplementation is consistent with other studies (Earnest et al., 1995; Haff et al., 2000; Kreider, Ferreira, et al., 1998; Kreider, Klesges, et al., 1996; Vandenberghe et al., 1997). Two potential mechanisms underlying such increase have been proposed: an increase in total body water and increased synthesis of myofibrillar protein (Bessman & Savabi, 1990).

The findings of the present study suggest that creatine supplementation in conjunction with a good conditioning program can be effective in improving athletic performance in female collegiate volleyball players. Further research, however, is needed concerning, specifically, long-term creatine supplementation and its effects.

References

Balsom, P., Ekblom, B., Sjodin, B., & Hultman, E. (1993). Creatine supplementation and dynamic high-intensity intermittent exercise. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 3, 143-149.

Bessman, S. P., & Savabi, F. (1990). The role of the phosphocreatine energy shuttle in exercise and muscle hypertrophy. In A. W. Taylor, P. Gollnick, & H. Green (Eds.), Biochemistry of Exercise VII (pp. 167-178). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Casey, A., Constantin-Teodosiu, D., Howell, D., Hultman, E., & Greenhaff, P. (1996). Creatine ingestion favorably affects performance and muscle metabolism during maximal exercise in humans. American Journal of Physiology, 271, E31-37.

Earnest, C., Snell, P., Rodriguez, R., Almada, A., & Mitchell, T. (1995). The effect of creatine monohydrate ingestion on anaerobic power indices, muscular strength and body composition. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 153, 207-209.

Greenhaff, P., Casey, A., Short, A., Harris, R., Soderlund, K., & Hultman, E. (1993). Influence of oral creatine supplementation on muscle torque during repeated bouts of maximal voluntary exercise in man. Clinical Science, 84, 565-571.

Haff, G., Kirksey, B., Stone, M., Warren, B., Johnson, R., Stone, M., et al. (2000). The effect of 6 weeks of creatine monohydrate supplementation on dynamic rate of force development. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 14(4), 426-433.

Harris, R., Soderlund, K., & Hultman, E. (1992). Elevation of creatine in resting and exercised muscle of normal subjects by creatine supplementation. Clinical Science, 83, 367-374.

Hultman, E., Bergstrom, J., Spriet, L., & Soderlund, K. (1990). Energy metabolism and fatigue. In A. Taylor, P. Gollnick, & H. Green (Eds.), Biochemistry of Exercise VII (pp. 73-92). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Kreider, R., Ferreira, M., Wilson, M., Grindstaff, P., Plisk, S., Reinhardy, J., et al. (1998). Effects of creatine supplementation on body composition, strength and sprint performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 30, 73-82.

Kreider, R., Klesges, R., Harmon, K., Grindstaff, P., Ramsey, L., Bullen, D., et al. (1996). Effects of ingesting supplements designed to promote lean tissue accretion on body composition during resistance exercise. International Journal of Sport Nutrition, 6, 234-246.

Stout, J. R., Eckerson, J., Noonan, D., Moore, G., & Cullen, D. (1999). Effects of 8 weeks of creatine supplementation on exercise performance and fat-free weight in football players during training. Nutrition Research, 19, 217-225.

Vandenberghe, K., Goris, M., Van Hecke, P., Van Leemputte, M., Vangerven, L., & Hespel, P. (1997). Long-term creatine intake is beneficial to muscle performance during resistance training. Journal of Applied Physiology, 83, 2055-2063.

Author Note

Jon YeanSub Lim, Department of Health and Physical Education, Northern State University.

U.S. Sports Academy2016-10-14T11:27:22-05:00February 15th, 2008|Sports Exercise Science, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Job Satisfaction Among Athletic Trainers in NCAA Division I-AA Institutions

Submitted by: Roberto Herrera, Weber State University
Jon YeanSub Lim, Northern State University

Abstract

This study analyzed the level of job satisfaction experienced by certified athletic trainers in selected National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I-AA institutions having football programs. It utilized the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire, which was sent along with a demographic questionnaire to 240 certified athletic trainers around the country. Analysis involved 138 questionnaires, representing a 57.5% rate of return. One-way analysis of variance and post hoc Scheffe multiple comparisons were conducted to determine if significant differences existed in the level of job satisfaction among athletic trainers relative to their demographics. Statistical significance was accepted at an alpha level of p < 0.05. The study found statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) in trainers’ job satisfaction, associated with their various employment positions: program director, faculty member, head athletic trainer, assistant athletic trainer, graduate assistant. Program directors and athletic training faculty members were most satisfied with their jobs, while graduate assistants were least satisfied. The findings of the study also showed that male athletic trainers experienced significantly higher job satisfaction than female athletic trainers, and older trainers experienced greater job satisfaction than younger trainers. Level of job satisfaction increased with the level of professional experience in athletic training.

Job Satisfaction Among Athletic Trainers in NCAA Division I-AA Institutions

Because of the needs of American football, athletic training originated as a health-care profession at the turn of the 20th century. In the beginning, the practice of athletic training was more a skill than a science. Moreover, the role of the athletic trainer was not defined, nor were his or her duties clearly affirmed by sports personnel outside the profession (Arnheim, 1993). Since the establishment in 1950 of a professional association in athletic training, the National Athletic Trainers’ Association (NATA), the establishment of undergraduate and graduate academic curricula in athletic training, along with establishment of standards for entry-level athletic trainer certification, has led to athletic training’s recognition as an allied health profession.

As the profession of athletic training has evolved, so have the athletic trainer’s responsibilities. Caring for athletes has always been an important responsibility; educating students of athletic training to secure professional continuity is becoming increasingly important. In 1994, NATA passed a mandate that, by the year 2004, any student seeking eligibility to test for the entry-level athletic training certification must attend a program approved by NATA. Athletic trainers around the country are in the process of meeting the new requirements set forth by NATA, which include new responsibilities within both the practical and academic realms. The new responsibilities may be especially noticed by smaller institutions whose budgets limit hiring of additional staff. The additional demands on athletic trainers may well induce additional stress, and the effects of that stress should be studied. An important related issue is the effects of athletic training personnel’s satisfaction with their academic and athletic responsibilities. Of primary concern to this study was the job satisfaction of the athletic training personnel in Division I-AA institutions having football programs sanctioned by the NCAA.

Methods

Participants
The participants were 138 certified athletic trainers (73 men, 65 women) from NCAA Division I-AA institutions that sponsor football. They included program directors (13.0%), faculty members (5.1%), head athletic trainers (16.7%), assistant athletic trainers (48.6%), and graduate assistants (16.7%). Of the respondents, 13.0% had bachelor’s degrees, 67.4% had master’s degrees, and 13.0% had doctoral degrees. Respondents’ professional experience most commonly numbered 1-5 years (34.8%); a further 31.2% of the respondents had 6-10 years’ experience, while 22.5% had more than 16 years’ experience in athletic training.

Instrument
Job satisfaction among athletic trainers was measured using the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ). It employs a 20-dimension Likert-type scale with 5 responses (1 very dissatisfied, 2 dissatisfied, 3 neutral, 4 satisfied, 5 very satisfied). Demographic data pertaining to gender, age, experience, and education were also collected. The purpose of the MSQ is to determine the degree of job satisfaction in terms of characteristics associated with the task itself (intrinsic satisfaction); of other, non-task characteristics of the job (extrinsic satisfaction); and of overall satisfaction with a job (total satisfaction). Evidence of the validity of the MSQ derives mainly from its ability to perform in line with theoretical expectation (known as construct validity) (Weiss, Dawis, England, & Lofquist, 1967). Coefficients ranged from .84 to .91 for intrinsic satisfaction, while external satisfaction coefficients ranged from .77 to .82. Total satisfaction coefficients ranged from .87 to .92. Reliability reported in Hoyt reliability coefficients suggests that the MSQ scales demonstrate adequate internal consistency reliabilities.

Statistical Analysis
The data collected were analyzed, using descriptive statistics, to obtain frequency distributions, percentages, means, and standard deviations. In addition, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to determine if significant differences in job-satisfaction levels existed relative to the athletic trainers’ demographics. When results of the ANOVA test were statistically significant, Scheffe post hoc multiple comparisons determined where differences between means existed. Statistical significance was accepted at an alpha level.

Results

Table 1 presents the ranking and mean values (in ascending order) for the total-job-satisfaction variables describing the athletic trainers. Primarily, the 3 intrinsic variables social status (M = 3.52), moral values (M = 3.50), and achievement (M = 3.41) ranked as top sources of job satisfaction among the athletic trainers. Participating trainers were least satisfied with their working conditions (M = 2.45), company policies and procedures (M = 2.22), advancement (M = 2.20), and compensation (M = 1.42).

Table 1

Mean Rank, Mean, and Standard Deviation of Variables in Athletic Trainers’ Total Job Satisfaction

MSQ Dimension	Mean Rank	M	SD
Social Service	1	3.52	0.81
Moral Values	2	3.50	0.86
Achievement	3	3.41	0.86
Creativity	4	3.38	0.91
Responsibility	5	3.34	0.90
Ability Utilization	6	3.33	0.83
Authority	7	3.22	0.90
Independence	8	3.19	0.89
Variety	9	3.16	1.12
Activity	10	3.15	1.05
Co-workers	11	3.02	0.99
Security	12	2.85	0.82
Supervision-Technical	13	2.82	0.83
Supervision-Human Relations	14	2.77	0.91
Recognition	15	2.74	0.88
Social Status	16	2.73	0.94
Working Conditions	17	2.45	0.82
Company Polices & Practices	18	2.22	0.94
Advancement	19	2.20	0.85
Compensation	20	1.42	1.10

Table 2 presents total satisfaction levels in terms of the participants’ demographic characteristics, along with results of one-way ANOVA tests. Athletic training program directors (3.58 mean rating) and athletic training faculty members (3.47 mean rating) appeared satisfied with their jobs. On the other hand, head athletic trainers (2.85 mean rating), assistant athletic trainers (2.47 mean rating), and graduate assistants (1.40 mean rating) appeared less satisfied. The results of the one-way ANOVA test indicated statistically significant differences in the sample’s job-satisfaction level based on employment (f = 152.875, p =.000). The results of the Scheffe post hoc testing indicate that the surveyed program directors and faculty members had job-satisfaction levels that were higher than those of head athletic trainers, assistant athletic trainers, and graduate assistants, to a statistically significant degree. Certified graduate assistants reported the lowest job-satisfaction levels.

Male athletic trainers had a mean of 2.79, while female athletic trainers had a mean of 2.27. The one-way ANOVA test indicated statistically significant differences between male and female athletic trainers for total job satisfaction (f =20.401, p = .000). Female athletic trainers were less satisfied with their employment than were their male counterparts, to a statistically significant extent.

Athletic trainers between 20 and 29 years of age had a mean of 2.11, while those 30 to 39 had a mean of 2.81 and those 50 or older had a still higher mean score, 2.96. One-way ANOVA testing indicated statistically significant differences in participants’ total job satisfaction based on age (f = 17.709, p = .000). Scheffe post hoc testing furthermore indicated that athletic trainers between 20 and 29 years of age reported job-satisfaction levels that were lower than those reported by trainers in other age groups, to a statistically significant degree.

Participants who had bachelor’s degrees had a mean of 2.30, while master’s-degree-holding participants had a mean of 2.56 and doctorate-holding participants had a still higher mean of 2.83. One-way ANOVA testing indicated statistically significant differences among the participating athletic trainers based on educational level (f = 3.149, p = 0.46). Scheffe post hoc testing indicated athletic trainers having the doctoral degree were significantly less satisfied in their employment than athletic trainers holding the bachelor’s degree.

Athletic trainers with 1-5 years of experience had a mean rating of 2.00, and those with 16 or more years had a mean value of 2.95. One-way ANOVA testing indicated there were statistically significant differences between participants based on years of experience as an athletic trainer (f = 19.826, p = .000). Scheffe post hoc testing indicated that the mean for total job satisfaction was significantly associated with the trainers’ years of professional experience; those having 1-5 years’ experience had mean scores that were higher than the mean scores for trainers with longer experience.

Table 2

Athletic Trainers’ Job Satisfaction as Related to Their Demographic Characteristics

Variable	General Satisfaction
M	SD	F	p
Employment			152.875	.000
	Program Director	3.58	0.27
	Faculty Member	3.47	0.26
	Head Athletic Trainer	2.85	0.28
	Assistant Athletic Trainer	2.47	0.25
	Graduate Assistant	1.40	0.50

Gender			20.401	.000
	Female	2.21	0.59
	Male	2.73	0.76

Age			17.709	.000
	20-29	2.11	0.73
	30-39	2.81	0.48
	40-49	2.94	0.57
	50-59	2.96	0.44

Education			3.149	.046
	Bachelor’s Degree	2.30	0.87
	Master’s Degree	2.56	0.65
	Doctoral Degree	2.83	0.44

Experience			19.826	.000
	1-5 Years	2.00	0.78
	6-10 Years	2.78	0.50
	11-15 Years	2.74	0.42
	16 Years or More	2.85	0.52

Conclusions

The athletic trainers participating in the study indicated that those variables producing greatest job satisfaction were the intrinsic satisfaction variables. In the measure of total job satisfaction, social service was the highest ranking variable; advancement and compensation were the lowest ranking. Greatest satisfaction with one’s job was indicated by program directors and athletic training faculty members. In general, the less rank characterizing the employment position, the less job satisfaction reported. Perhaps job satisfaction, then, may be attributed in some part to compensation for various positions.

In this study, younger members of the profession expressed most of the dissatisfaction with a job, especially the certified graduate assistants who were surveyed. Male participants had a higher level of job satisfaction than female participants, which may be related to low scores for satisfaction with one’s professional advancement . However, the advancement variable from the total job satisfaction score was in general indicative of dissatisfaction among athletic training personnel. As the education level of the athletic trainers increased, so did their satisfaction with the job. In addition, as years of experience increased, so did job satisfaction.

The amount of job dissatisfaction among athletic trainers observed from this study is disquieting. Whatever their demographic, dissatisfied participants in the study indicated that compensation was a major factor. The surveyed certified graduate assistants, who are usually underpaid and overworked, were among the most dissatisfied. Graduate assistants constitute an important asset in academic departments and programs, contributing to their effectiveness. The pattern of abusive employment of graduate assistants should be changed. At a minimum, prospective graduate assistants in athletic training should be well aware of the demands of a position, and its advantages and disadvantages, prior to employment. In fairness, graduate assistant athletic trainers should be fully compensated for their hard work. Changing the pattern, however, will be difficult, since no matter how much work is demanded (with no matter how little pay or benefits), there will always be ambitious students willing to complete the experience.

References

Arnheim, D., & Prentice, W. (1993). Principles of athletic training (8th ed.). St. Louis: Mosby.

Arnheim, D., & Prentice, W. (1993). Principles of athletic training (10th ed.). St. Louis: Mosby.

Bogg, J., & Cooper, C. (1995). Job satisfaction, mental health, and occupational stress among senior civil servants. Human relations, 48, 327-341.

Carson, K. D., Carson, P. C., Yallaprapragada, R., Langford, H., & Ro, C. W. (1998). Emergency medical technicians: Is career satisfaction within their control. Hospital Topics, 76(1),15-24.

Cassidy, M. L., & Warren, B. O. (1991). Status consistency and work satisfaction among professional and managerial women and men. Gender and Society, 5, 193-207.

Clark, A., Oswald, A., & Warr, P. (1996). Is job satisfaction U-shaped in age? Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 69, 57-83.

Daniels, K. (2000). Measures of five aspects of affective well-being at work. Human Relations, 53(2), 275-290.

Lu, L. (1999). Work motivation, job stress and employees’ well-being. Journal of Applied Management Studies, 8(1), 61-73.

Ma, X., & Macmillan, R. B. (1999). Influences of workplace conditions on teachers’ job satisfaction. Journal of Educational Research, 93(1), 39-54.

Mangus, B. (1998). The evolving roles of athletic training educators and clinicians. Journal of Athletic Training, 33(4), 308-309.

NCAA Official Web Provider. (2000). NCAA requirements of Division IAA Institutions. http://www.ncaa.org.

Orpen, C. (1994). Interactive effects of work motivation and personal control on employee job performance and satisfaction. Journal of Social Psychology, 134(6), 855-859.

Smits, P., & Hoy, F. (1998). Employee work attitudes: The subtle influence of gender. Human Relations, 51(5), 649-665.

Staurowsky, E., & Scriber, K. (1998). An analysis of selected factors that affect the work lives of athletic trainers employed in accredited educational programs. Journal of Athletic Training, 33(3), 244-248.

Vallen, G. K. (1993). Organizational climate and burnout. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 34(1), 54-67.

Weiss, D. J., Dawis, R. V., England, G. W., & Lofquist, L. H. (1967). Manual for the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, Industrial Relations Center.

Author Note

Roberto Herrera, Department of Health Promotion and Human Performance, Weber State University; Jon YeanSub Lim, Department of Health and Physical Education, Northern State University.

U.S. Sports Academy2015-10-22T23:43:30-05:00February 15th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Coaching, Sports Facilities, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Do-It-Yourself Investing in Sport-Related Firms

Submitted by: Mark Mitchell, University of South Carolina Spartanburg, Robert Montgomery, University of Evansville, Sheila Mitchell University of South Carolina Spartanburg

Given the growth of the sports industry, many investors find sports-related stock issues to be attractive. The purpose of this manuscript is to examine the growing number of do-it-yourself investing options for shareholders and customers. In particular, do-it-yourself investing in direct stock purchase programs (DSPs), dividend reinvestment programs (DRIPs), and American depository receipts (ADRs) are presented. First, do-it-yourself investing in such programs is discussed. Second, familiar sports-related firms offering such programs are highlighted. Third, the benefits of such investment programs from a corporate viewpoint are advanced. Finally, the implications for sports marketers are discussed.

Do-It-Yourself Investing in Sport-Related Firms

The American culture is a sports-oriented culture. Sports metaphors are used to represent personal and professional lives. For example, “Take one for the team” or “Go for it” are common everyday phrases with origins in athletic competition. And, statistics are used to track favorite teams and players. Consider the following selected statistics regarding the sports industry:

1. Americans spent $213.5 billion on sports in 1999, a whopping $763 per capita (Street and Smith’s, 1999).

2. Americans spent approximately $22 billion on athletic equipment, $14 billion on athletic footwear, and $12 billion on athletic clothing in 2001 (National Sporting Goods, 2002).

3. Among youths aged 12-17 years, 61% participate in some organized sports program (National Sporting Goods, 2002).

4. In 2000, 86% of all U.S. residents age 7 or older participated in at least one athletic endeavor (National Sporting Goods, 2002).

5. Growth rates in the sports industry are attractive, with sales of equipment, footwear, clothing, and recreational transport expanding from $56.4 billion in 1994 to approximately $74.5 billion in 2001(National Sporting Goods, 2002).

Many sports-related firms–Nike (footwear, apparel, equipment), Disney (broadcasting), Calloway (equipment), Russell (apparel), Foot Locker (retailing)–maintain, like other firms, stock purchase and/or stock dividend reinvestment programs to serve the needs of small investors. These direct investment programs are particularly valuable to providers of consumer brands (such as sports equipment, footwear, and apparel), since every shareholder is a potential customer and every customer is a potential shareholder (McConville, 1996). In addition to raising capital, these investment programs may be viewed as an extension of a firm’s integrated marketing communications (IMC) effort appealing to consumers and investors alike.

Individual investors now enjoy access to information formerly available only to larger investors and brokerage firms. Spurred by confidence, knowledge, and an explosion of readily available information, many investors are turning to do-it-yourself investing to take greater control of their personal financial matters (Carlson, 1998). Do-it-yourself investors are attracted to this style of investing, or investing philosophy, for a variety of reasons, including ease of market entry, lower transaction costs, pay-as-you-go potential, discounts or premiums offered, and personal empowerment (Drip Investor, 1999). For those interested in investing specifically in the sports industry, the three most likely options are the DSP, DRIP, and ADR. Due to the pace of change in financial markets, details of the three types of programs (e.g., minimum investments, fees) are beyond the scope of the following discussion.

Direct Stock Purchase Programs

DSPs allow investors to buy shares of stock in a company directly from the firm, bypassing the need for an intermediary (such as a brokerage firm). While some DSPs may require a minimum initial investment (e.g., $50-$250), others do not. Investors may make optional periodic (for example, monthly) cash investments, purchasing additional shares of company stock.

Unlike larger investors who typically purchase in round lots of 100 shares, direct investors may invest as little as $10 per month to buy fractional shares of stock. While some DSPs charge a fee for the optional investments (e.g., a $3 surcharge), others do not. Currently, there are approximately 600 DSPs available to individual investors (see netstockdirect.com). Table 1 provides a list of familiar sports-related firms that offer DSP programs for shareholders.

Table 1
Sports-Related Firms Offering Direct Stock Purchase (DSP) Programs

Company Name	Stock Symbol	Product Categories	Brand Names
Daimler Chrysler	DCX	Automobile Racing, Truck Racing	Mercedes Benz, Dodge, and Others
FILA	FLH	Athletic Footwear, Athletic Clothing	Fila
Ford Motor Co.	F	Automobile Racing, Truck Racing	Ford, Mercury, and Others
Goodyear Tire and Rubber Co.	GT	Tires, Rubber Products	Goodyear
Kellwood Company	KWD	Recreational Camping and Sporting Products	Sierra Designs, Trek, Wenzel, Slumberjacks, and Others
Nike	NKE	Footwear, Apparel, Sports Equipment	Nike
Penney (J. C.) Co.	JCP	Retailing (Including Athletic Equipment)	J. C. Penney
Sears, Roebuck & Co.	S	Retailing (Including Athletic Equipment)	Sears
Target	TGT	Retailing (Including Athletic Equipment)	Target
Tribune Company	TRB	Owner, Major League Baseball	Chicago Cubs
Wal-Mart	WMT	Retailing (Including Athletic Equipment)	Wal-Mart, Sam’s Club

Note. This original table was compiled from Carlson (1997, 1998), Drip Investor (1998), and Netstockdirect.com.

Dividend Reinvestment Programs

DRIPs differ from DSPs in that the individual investor must typically own one or more shares of stock to enroll in the DRIP program. A certified financial planner, an electronic brokerage service, the National Association of Investors Corp. (see the Web site better-investing.org), Firstshare (see firstshare.com), Sharebuilder (see sharebuilder.com), or the publication The Moneypaper

geschmackvoll geschlechtliche paare onlineshop

(see moneypaper.com) can provide such an initial service, among others. Then, the individual investor may make optional periodic cash investments in the firm. Additionally, the investor may elect to have some or all dividends used to purchase additional shares of the company’s stock. Currently, there are over 1,100 DRIP programs available to individual investors (see Moneypaper.com). Table 2 provides a list of familiar sports-related firms that provide DRIP programs for shareholders.

Table 2

Dividend Reinvestment Programs of Sports-Related Firms

Company Name	Stock Symbol	Product Categories	Brand Names
Brunswick Corp.	BC	Pleasure Boats, Marine Engines	Brunswick
Calloway Golf	ELY	Golf Equipment	Calloway, Big Bertha
Daimler Chrysler	DCX	Automobile Racing, Truck Racing	Mercedes Benz, Dodge, and Others
Disney (Walt) Co.	DIS	Owner, Sports Teams and Broadcast Outlets	California Angels, Anaheim Mighty Ducks, ABC Sports, ESPN
Foot Locker	Z	Sports Equipment, Footwear, and Clothing Retailer	Champs Sport, Foot Locker, Lady Foot Locker, and Others
Ford Motor Co.	F	Automobile Racing	Ford, Mercury, Jaguar, Volvo, and Others
Fortune Brands	FO	Golf Equipment	Titleist, Footjoy, Cobra, Pinnacle
General Motors Corp.	GM	Automobile Racing, Truck Racing	Chevrolet, Pontiac, and Others
Goodyear Tire and Rubber Co.	GT	Tires, Rubber Products	Goodyear
Harley-Davidson, Inc.	HDI	Motorcycles	Harley-Davidson
Huffy Corp.	HWF	Bicycles	Huffy
Ingersoll-Rand	IR	Motorized Golf Carts	Club Car
Jefferson-Pilot	JPC	Insurance, Broadcasting (Regional Broadcasts of Sporting Events)	Jefferson-Pilot Broadcasting (ACC, SEC, Carolina Panthers, etc.)
Kellwood Company	KWD	Recreational Camping and Sporting Products	Sierra Designs, Trek, Wenzel, Slumberjacks, and Others
Kmart	KM	Retailer (Including Athletic Equipment)	Kmart
National Golf Properties	TEE	REIT (Specializing in Golf Course Properties)	Over 120 Golf Courses in Metropolitan Areas
Nike	NKE	Footwear, Apparel, Sports Equipment	Nike
Penney (JC) Co.	JCP	Retailing (Including Athletic Equipment)	J. C. Penney
Russell Corp.	RML	Sports Apparel, Uniforms	Russell Athletic
Sara Lee Corp.	SLE	Sports Apparel	Hanes, Champion
Sears, Roebuck & Co.	S	Retailer (including athletic equipment)	Sears
Target	TGT	Retailer (including athletic equipment)	Target
Tribune Company	TRB	Owner, Major League Baseball	Chicago Cubs
Wal-Mart Stores, Inc.	WMT	Retailer (including athletic equipment)	Wal-Mart, Sam’s Club

Note. This original table was compiled from Dripcentral.com, Dripinvestor.com, Drip Investor (1998), Fool.com, Moneypaper.com, and Netstockdirect.com.

American Depository Receipts

The creation of ADRs has made it dramatically easier for U.S. investors to invest in foreign firms. An ADR is a negotiable U.S. certificate representing ownership of shares in a non-U.S. corporation. Financial institutions such as the Bank of New York, Citibank, and J. P. Morgan are active depositories for ADRs in the United States (Sherwood, 1998). ADRs are quoted and traded in U.S. dollars in the U.S. securities market (Canadian Shareholder, 1998). Do-it-yourself investors can buy and sell these shares like ordinary shares, eliminating the need for currency exchange. Also, the dividends are paid to investors in U.S. dollars (Gangahar, 2000).

The popularity of ADRs among investors increased dramatically during the 1990s (Investor Business Relations, 1999). Most ADR programs act as dividend reinvestment programs for their investors by applying dividends to additional share purchases. Further, the buyer’s transaction costs tend to be much lower than the costs of purchasing the same shares in foreign markets (DRIP Investor, 1999). Finally, many investors have greater confidence in a firm that makes the commitment to offer ADRs, because the firm then comes under the scrutiny of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (Gangahar, 2000). Currently, there are over 1,800 ADRs available in the United States (Sherwood, 1998). Table 3 provides a list of familiar sports-related firms that provide ADR programs for shareholders.

Table 3

American Depository Receipts Programs of Sports-Related Firms

Company Name	Stock Symbol	Product Categories	Brand Names
Adidas Group (Germany)	ASHUYP	Footwear, Apparel, Sports Equipment	Adidas
AMER Group (Finland)	AGPDY	Sport Equipment	Wilson Sporting Goods
Daimler Chrysler	DCX	Automobile Racing, Truck Racing	Mercedes Benz, Dodge, and Others
Dukati Motor Holdings (Italy)	DMH	Motorcycles	Dukati
Fiat (Italy)	FIA	Automobile Racing	Fiat, Lancia, Alfa Romeo, and Others
FILA (Italy)	FLH	Athletic Footwear, Athletic Clothing	Fila
Honda Motor Corp.	HMC	Automobile Racing, Motorcycle Racing	Honda, Acura
Nissan Motor Co.	NSANY	Automobile Racing	Nissan, Infinity
PUMA (Germany)	PMMAY	Footwear, Equipment, and Apparel	PUMA
TAG-Heuer (Germany)	THW	Timing Equipment and Services	TAG-Heuer
Toyota Motor Corp.	TOYOY	Automobile Racing	Toyota, Lexus
Volkswagen (Germany)	VLKAY	Automobile Racing	Volkswagen, Audi

Note. This original table was compiled from Carlson (1998), Drip Investor (1999), Netstockdirect.com, and Wallstreeter.com.

Benefits of Do-It-Yourself Investing Programs to Firms

Direct investing programs are particularly valuable to producers or providers of consumer brands (e.g., sports equipment, apparel, and footwear), since every shareholder is a potential customer and every customer is a potential shareholder. In addition to raising capital, these investment programs may be viewed as an extension of a firm’s integrated marketing communications (IMC) effort. When viewed this way, such programs provide a number of benefits to the corporation, including strengthening brand loyalty, attracting long-term investors, adding stability to the shareholder base, and retaining dividends.

Direct investors tend to become loyal customers. They seek to identify high-performing investments. Then, they seek to protect their investment by buying the brand (Carlson, 1998). For instance, the shareholder owning stock in Nike is more likely to select Nike product than a competing product. Further, these shareholders may influence the brand selections of family and friends by communicating their ownership and possibly by transferring stock in the form of a gift.

Shareholder participants in direct investing programs tend to be longer-term investors. As such, they have a long-term commitment to the brand. Stock price declines are often viewed as opportunities to buy additional shares (Carlson, 1998). Such a mindset provides stability in the ownership group, limits active trading, and may dilute the clout of institutional investors (such as mutual fund managers). In addition, given their long-term investment perspective, shareholder participants in direct investing programs are likely to make periodic investments in their ownership positions. Known as dollar-cost averaging, an investor’s regular, periodic investment of $50-100 (e.g., monthly, quarterly) adds to his or her total shares owned; the average cost of shares is determined over time, eliminating the challenge of “timing” the market effectively. This has proven to be a cost-reducing strategy for long-term investors (Drip Investor, 1999). Furthermore, long-term investors, by virtue of not selling their stock, add stability to the shareholder base (McConville, 1996).

Just as the name implies, DRIPs put distributed dividends back into the company, in the name of the shareholder. This decision by the individual investors allows a firm to retain dividends, putting capital back to work within the firm. Further, dividend reinvestment is a continual validation of the investor’s belief in the long-term performance of an organization.

Implications of Do-It-Yourself Investing Programs for Sports Marketers

As competition for brand and shareholder loyalty intensifies, direct investing programs represent one effort to improve corporate performance in these vitally important areas. Direct investors tend to become brand-loyal customers in keeping with stocks they own. Their relatively expansive investment horizon adds stability in times of market fluctuation. Firms with direct investing programs find their shareholder bases becoming more diversified as voting strength is distributed across a larger number of investors. And, dividends are put back to work within the firm to finance future growth.

For do-it-yourself investors interested in sports-related stock issues, DSPs, DRIPs, and ADRs represent the most common methods of market entry. These programs benefit the individual investor by improving market access, lowering transaction costs, eliminating need to “time” the market, providing discounts or other premiums, and empowering self-motivated investors, among other things.

It must be noted that the relationship between stock ownership and brand loyalty is an intuitive one that, to date, has received limited empirical review. Still, the position that investors select one product over another (Titleist or Top Flite, Nike or Reebok) based on stock ownership is a reasonable inference to make. The direct investing programs outlined here represent a two-way investment dynamic: Investors invest in firms they believe in, while corporations invest in brand and shareholder loyalty. Direct investing programs represent a win-win situation for investors and sports marketers. The availability and popularity of such programs are likely to increase in the future.

References

Carlson, C. B. (1997). No-load stocks: How to buy your first share and every share directly from the company with no broker’s fees (2nd Ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Carlson, C. B. (1998). The individual investor revolution: Seize your new powers of investing and make more money in the market. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Daragahi, B. (1999). Best sites for DRIP investors. Money, 28 (11), 174-176.

Directory of dividend reinvestment plans. (1999). Drip Investor. Hammond, IN: Horizon.

Gangahar, A. (2000, November). Foreign investment with the comforts of home. Global Investor, 54-56.

Inexpensive way to invest internationally. (1998, September/October). Canadian Shareholder, 38.

ADRs continue to provide growing competition to U.S. companies for investor dollars. (1999, October 18). Investor Business Relations, 8-9.

McConville, D. J. (1996). More firms sell their stock through direct purchase programs. Corporate Cash Flow, 17(7), 6-8.

National Sporting Goods Association. Retrieved 2002 from www.nsga.org.

Sherwood, R. J. (1998). 100 ways to invest abroad. Forbes, 162(2), 172-175.

Street and Smith’s Sports Business Journal. (December 20-26, 1999).

Author Note

Mark Mitchell, D.B.A., Associate Professor of Marketing at the Univ. of South Carolina Spartanburg; Robert Montgomery,D.B.A., Associate Professor of Marketing at the University of Evansville; Sheila Mitchell, CPA, MPAcc, Instructor of Accounting at the Univ. of South Carolina Spartanburg

U.S. Sports Academy2017-11-02T13:56:26-05:00February 15th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Management|Comments Off