Factors Associated with Success Among NBA Teams

 

Abstract

Data from the 1997-1998 National Basketball Association (NBA) regular season were analyzed to determine factors that best predicted success, as measured by winning percentage. A total of 20 variables were examined. A multiple regression analysis revealed that field goal conversion percentage was the best predictor of success, explaining 61.4% of the variance in winning percentage. The average three-point conversion percentage of the opposing teams explained a further 18.9% of the variance. These two variables combined explained 80.3% of the variance in winning percentage. The finding pertaining to field goal conversion percentage suggest that the attainments of the offense are more important than are the defensive attainments in predicting the success levels of NBA teams. These and other implications are discussed.

Introduction

The game of basketball was invented in December 1891 by Dr. James A. Naismith while an instructor in the physical training department of the International Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) Training School in Springfield, Massachussets (Fox, 1974). Naismith’s goal was to answer the challenge of Dr. Luther H. Gulick, his department head, who wanted an indoor game to be invented that (1) would attract young men during the winter, when baseball and football were out of season, and (2) would replace gymnastics and calisthenics, which provoked little interest (Fox, 1974). Naismith, known as “the father of basketball,” incorporated features of soccer, U.S. football, rugby football, field hockey, and other outdoor sports in developing the game of basketball.

By 1946, professional basketball had acquired a large and faithful following among U.S. sports fans, who wanted to watch their former collegians in action. During this period, there was the American Basketball League (ABL) on the East Coast and the National Basketball League (NBL) in the Midwest. In June, 1946, the Basketball Association of America was formed, which effectively replaced the ABL and competed directly with the NBL (Fox, 1974). The BAA and the NBL merged in 1950 as the National Basketball Association (NBA), comprising 17 teams. The NBA was reduced to 10 teams in 1951, as 7 NBL teams with marginal franchises dropped out (Fox, 1974). However, in the 1970s, the NBA expanded to 22 teams. Presently, the NBA contains 29 teams, with 15 teams in the Eastern Conference (with 7 teams representing the Atlantic division and 8 teams representing the Central division) and 14 teams in the Western Conference (with 7 teams representing the Midwest division and 7 teams representing the Pacific division). Basketball is now one of the most popular sports in the United States. Indeed, in the 1997-1998 season (the last time a full 82-game season was played), a total of 8,877,309 people attended an NBA game (The Sports Network, 1998), with an average attendance of 17,135 people per game (USATODAY, 1999).

Currently, at the end of the regular season, that is, when each team has played 82 matches, the top eight teams in each conference qualify for the playoffs. These eight teams then participate in a knockout tournament with the eventual winners of this stage within each conference advancing to the NBA finals. Because the teams which advance to the playoffs are those that have the highest winning percentages in their respective divisions during the regular season, knowledge of factors which predict success during this period would be of educational value for NBA coaches and analysts. Indeed, the former group could use this information to target coaching interventions.

Basketball is abound with empirical facts. Surprisingly, however, only descriptive statistics (e.g., averages, totals, percentages) tend to be utilized. Conversely, few inferential statistical analyses are undertaken on NBA data. Yet, such analyses provide consumers with information regarding the relationships among variables. As such, inferential statistics can yield very detailed and important information to consumers of professional basketball. Moreover, inferential statistics can be used to determine factors that predict the performance levels of teams.

To date, only a few studies have investigated correlates of basketball-related performance. Of those that have, the majority have involved an examination of psychological antecedents of basketball performance. For example, Whitehead, Butz, Vaughn, and Kozar (1996) found that increased stress (assumed to be present in games as opposed to practices) among members of an NCAA Division I men’s varsity team was associated with longer pre-shot preparations and a greater incidence of overthrown shots.

Newby and Simpson (1994) reported (1) a statistically significant negative relationship between minutes played by a sample of men and women college basketball players and mood, (2) a statistically significant negative relationship between the number of assists and depression, (3) a statistically significant negative relationship between the number of turnovers committed and mood, and (4) a statistically significant positive relationship between the number of turnovers committed and degree of tension. The researchers concluded that success in basketball is negatively related to psychopathology.

Both Pargman, Bender, and Deshaires (1975) and Browne (1995) found no relationship between free-throw and field goal shooting and field independency/field dependency. Additionally, Shick (1971) found no relationship between hand-eye dominance and depth perception and free-throw shooting ability in college women. Hall and Erffmeyer (1983) examined the effect of imagery combined with modeling on free-throw shooting performance among female college basketball students. These researchers noted that players who shot free throws under the conditions of videotaped modeling combined with relaxation and imagery were significantly more accurate than were those who shot in the relaxation and imagery condition only.

All the above studies investigated correlates of specific basketball skills (e.g., free-throw shooting), and, with a few exceptions (e.g., Butz et al., 1996), these skills typically were examined under simulated conditions. Such studies, although interesting, have limited utility for basketball coaches, in particular, because they does not provide any information as to why or how a team wins a basketball game. Indeed, the only inquiry found determining factors associated with success among basketball players was that of Steenland and Deddens (1997). These researchers studied the effects of travel and rest on performance, utilizing the results for 8,495 regular season NBA games over eight seasons (1987-1988 through 1994-1995). Findings revealed a statistically significant positive relationship between the amount of the time that elapsed between games and performance level. Specifically, more than 1 day between games was associated with a mean increase of 1.1 points for the home team and 1.6 points for the visitors. Peak performance occurred with 3 days between games. The researchers theorized that the negative effects of little time between games may be due more to insufficient time for physical recovery than to the effects of circadian rhythm (i.e., jet lag). However, although not statistically significant, they also found that visiting teams performed four points better, on average, when they traveled from the west coast to the east coast than when they traveled form east to west.

Surprisingly, no other study has investigated predictors of success among NBA teams. Even more surprising is the fact that no research appears to have examined what factors directly associated with skill level (e.g., field goal conversion percentage) best predict a team’s winning percentage. This was the purpose of the present inquiry. A secondary goal was to determine whether offensive or defensive factors would have more predictive power. It was expected that knowledge of these factors could help coaches to decide where to focus their attention, as well as assist analysts and fans in predicting a team’s performance.

Method
The data comprised all 21 unique team-level variables (when both team averages and totals were presented, only the averages were utilized, since they rendered totals redundant) that were presented on the official NBA website (i.e., http://www.nba.com) for the 1997-1998 regular professional basketball season. (The 1997-1998 NBA season was chosen because it represented the last time a full 82-game season was played.) These variables comprised winning percentage, which was treated as the dependent measure and 20 other variables which were utilized as independent variables. All variables are presented in Table 1. Scores pertaining to each variable for each team were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS; SPSS Inc., 1999).

Table 1
Pearson Product-Moment Correlations of Winning Percentage and Selected Variables for the 1997-1998 Regular NBA Season
Variable   Winning
Percentage 
three-point conversion percentage .38  
field goal conversion percentage .78* 
free-throw conversion percentage .03  
average number of offensive rebounds per game -.31 
average number of defensive rebounds per game .47  
number of total rebounds .19  
average number of assists per game .61*  
average number of steals per game .08 
average number of blocks per game   -.13 
number of points scored per game .57* 
field goal conversion percentage of the opposing teams -.68* 
average three-point conversion percentage of the opposing teams -.50  
average free-throw conversion percentage of the opposing teams .18  
average number of offensive rebounds per game of the opposing teams -.49  
average number of defensive rebounds per game of the opposing teams   -.71* 
average number of total rebounds of the opposing teams -.69*  
average number of assists per game of the opposing teams -.70*  
average number of steals per game of the opposing teams -.45  
average number of blocks per game of the opposing teams -.58*   
average number of points scored per game of the opposing teams -.70*  
* statistically significant after the Bonferroni adjustment

Results and Discussion
Table 1 presents the correlations between winning percentage and each of the selected variables. It can be seen that, after adjusting for Type I error (i.e., the Bonferroni adjustment), winning percentages increased with field goal conversion percentage, number of assists per game, and number of points scored per game, and decreased with field goal conversion percentage of the opposing teams, average number of defensive rebounds per game of the opposing teams, average number of total rebounds per game of the opposing teams, average number of assists per game of the opposing teams, average number of blocks per game of the opposing teams, and average number of points per game of the opposing teams.

An all possible subsets (APS) multiple regression (Thompson, 1995) was used to identify which combination of independent variables best predicted NBA teams’ success. Again, success was measured by NBA teams’ regular season winning percentages. For this study, the criterion used to determine adequacy of the model was the maximum proportion of variance explained (i.e., R2), which provides an important measure of effect size (Cohen, 1988). Specifically, all variables were included except for those that represented (1) the total number of points scored or the total number of rebounds (use of the number of defensive rebounds and offensive rebounds rendered use of the total number of rebounds redundant). Consequently, a total of 16 independent variables were analyzed.

The multiple regression analysis revealed that the following two variables made a statistically significant contribution (F [2, 26] = 53.12, p < .0001) to the model: field goal conversion percentage and average three-point conversion percentage of the opposing teams. The regression equation was as follows:

winning percentage =
-159.53 + {(7.90) X field goal conversion percentage} – {(4.24) X average three-point conversion percentage of the opposing teams}

The regression equation indicates that every 1 percentage increase in field goal conversion rate is associated with a 7.90% increase in winning percentage. The confidence interval corresponding to this variable suggests that we are 95% certain that every 1 percentage increase in field goal conversion rate is associated with an average increase in winning percentage of between 6.00% and 9.80%. Additionally, every 1 percentage increase in the three-point conversion rate of the opposing teams is associated with a 4.24% decrease in winning percentage (95% confidence interval is 2.49% to 5.99%).

With respect to predictive power of the model, field goal conversion percentage explained 61.4% of the variance in winning percentages, whereas average three-point conversion percentage of the opposing teams explained 18.9%. These two variables combined to explain 80.3% of the total variance in winning percentage (adjusted R2 = 78.8%). In the study of human behavior, this percentage is extremely large, suggesting that an NBA team’s success can be predicted with an excellent degree of accuracy.

Conclusions
The purpose of this study was to determine which variables best predict whether an NBA team’s success rate. The finding that field goal conversion percentage explains more than three times the variance in success than does the average three-point conversion percentage of the opposing teams suggests that the attainments of the offense are more important than are the defensive attainments in predicting whether an NBA team will be successful. Thus, the present finding is in contrast to Onwuegbuzie (1999a), who identified four multiple regression models which adequately predicted the winning percentages of National Football League (NFL) teams for the 1997-1998 regular football season–the most notable being a two-variable model comprising turnover differential (which explained 43.4% of the variance in success) and total number of rushing yards gained by the offense (which explained a further 9.3% of the variance). Based on these models, Onwuegbuzie concluded that, outside the 20-yard zone, the attainments of the defense are more important than are the offensive attainments in predicting whether an NFL team is successful.

The present result pertaining to NBA teams also is in contrast to Onwuegbuzie’s (1999b) replication study of NFL teams for the 1998-1999 football season in which a model was identified containing the following five variables: (1) turnover differential (which explained 54.4% of the variance); (2) total number of rushing yards conceded by the defense (which explained 21.3% of the variance); (3) total number of passing first downs attained by the offense (which explained 9.4% of the variance), (4) percentage of third-down plays that produce a first down (which explained 4.1% of the variance), and (5) total number of penalties conceded by the opponents’ defense resulting in a first down (which explained 4.1% of the variance). Onwuegbuzie concluded that defensive gains are better predictors of success than are offensive gains because the first two variables, which explained more than 75% of the variance, were characteristics of the defense.

The finding that field goal percentage rate explained a very large proportion of the variance in success (i.e., 61.4%) highlights the importance of offensive efficiency not only of the starting players but also of the “bench” players, since the latter group also contribute to the field goal percentage rate. Nevertheless, the fact that three-point conversion percentage also made a contribution to the regression model, albeit a smaller one, suggests the importance of teams forcing the opposition to hurry their three-point shots and to take these shots from non-optimal parts of the basketball court.

Although a significant proportion of the variance in winning percentage was explained by the selected variables, this study also should be replicated using data from other seasons. Furthermore, regression models should be fitted using college basketball data. Information from such analyses should help coaches and analysts alike to obtain objective data which can be used to monitor the performance of NBA teams.

References

Browne, G.S. (1995). Cognitive style and free throw shooting ability of female college athletes. Unpublished master’s thesis, Valdosta State University, Valdosta, Georgia.

Cohen, J. (1988) Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. New York: Wiley.

Fox, L. (1974). Illustrated history of basketball. New York, NY: Grosset & Dunlap.

Hall, E.G., & Erffmeyer, E.S. (1983). The effect of visuo-motor behavior rehearsal with video taped modeling of free-throw shooting accuracy of intercollegiate female basketball players. Journal of Sport Psychology, 5, 343-346.

Newby, R.W., & Simpson, S. (1994). Basketball performance as a function of scores on profile of mood states. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 78, 1142.

Onwuegbuzie, A.J. (1999a). Defense or Offense? Which is the better predictor of success for professional football teams? Perceptual and Motor Skills, 89, 151-159.

Onwuegbuzie, A.J. (1999b, November). Is defense or offense more important for professional football teams? A replication study using data from the 1998-1999 regular football season. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Midsouth Educational Research Association, Point Clear, AL.

Pargman, D., Bender, P., & Deshaires, P. (1975). Correlation between visual disembedding and basketball shooting by male and female varsity athletes. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 41, 956.

Shick, J. (1971). Relationships between depth perception and hand-eye dominance and free-throw shooting in college women. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 33, 539-542.

SPSS Inc. (1999) SPSS 9.0 for Windows. [Computer software]. Chicago, IL: SPSS Inc.

Steenland, K., & Deddens, J.A. (1997). Effect of travel and rest on performance of professional basketball players. Sleep, 20(5), 366-369.

The Sports Network. (1998). Statistics: 1997-1998 NBA attendance. The Sports Network, 21(21).

Thompson, B. (1995). Stepwise regression and stepwise discriminant analysis need not apply here: A guidelines editorial. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 55, 525-534.

USATODAY. (December 28, 1999). Inside the numbers. Retrieved January 28, 2000 from the World Wide Web: http://www.usatoday.com/sports/basketba/skn/numbers.htm.

Whitehead, R., Butz, J.W., Vaughn, R.E., & Kozar, B. (1996). Stress and performance: An application of Gray’s three-factor arousal theory to basketball free-throw shooting. Journal of Sport Behavior, 19(4), 354-364.

Footnote
1 Due to space constraints, the intercorrelations among all the variables is not presented. However, this can be obtained by contacting the author.


Address correspondence to Anthony Onwuegbuzie, Department of Educational Leadership, College of Education, Valdosta State University, Valdosta, Georgia, 31698 or e-mail (TONWUEGB@VALDOSTA.EDU).

2013-11-27T16:29:09-06:00February 13th, 2008|Sports Coaching, Sports History, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off on Factors Associated with Success Among NBA Teams

Coaching in Foreign Lands: Denmark and Egypt

Abstract

The purpose of this article is to discuss and contrast the authors experiences coaching in the Kingdom of Denmark and the Arab Republic of Egypt. The qualitative observations are my own and obviously from the perspective of my own country. Expatriates working in the sport environment must understand the values of the people with whom they are working or training as well as the values of their colleagues and of the society in general. In addition, an expatriate must understand how their athletes and their colleagues are educated and socialized to live and conduct themselves in society. Finally they must understand the social and economic systems of the nation. A highly developed understanding of the society early in the expatriates stay will make their job much easier and lead to a greater success in each of their endeavors. Denmark is one of the poorest countries on earth but has the highest standard of living and the most educated population as well. It is the oldest kingdom in Europe and possess an interesting history. The Scandinavian countries have a state supported church but most people are not involved in religious faith. Egypt has one of the most rapidly developing middle classes in the world. Egypt has a strong upwardly mobile, economy. Egypt has a rich history an tradition of its own. Ninety-seven percent of Egypt’s population follow Islam and I characterize it as a deeply religious society while Danes do not generally have a religious faith. These experiences have been among the most rewarding in my coaching career.

Introduction
Recently, much has been written about the high standard of education in Europe and in the Far East. I do not think that Americans can compare themselves to people from another country in very many aspects of their existence. Not only is it necessary for an expatriate to understand his or her host nation in order to succeed but that they be able look at the strong points of their hosts and see if it is possible make applications for our own educational and sports systems and improve the lives of our students and athletes. The author lived and worked in Aalborg, Denmark for three years following the conferral of the doctorate in Physical Education. The position involved manager and head trainer of the swimming division of AAlborg Swimming Club, which had over 2,500 participants in various aspects of aquatics sports. The sports included Monofin Swimming, Swimming, Water Polo, Diving, Lifesaving, and a lesson program with 1800 participants. The author was also an adjunct instructor in English Language at Sofiendal Lower School as well as Noresundby and Hasseris Gymnasiums.

The Danish Experience
As most people are well aware, the social democracies of Iceland, Finland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark and their protectorate territories have social systems that take care of their citizens from cradle to grave (1). Anyone born in these countries is literally guaranteed a very reasonable life including all aspects of medical care, child care, housing, as well as enough money to live conformably whether they choose to work or choose to remain unemployed nine months and perform community service for three months. The language is very similar to Swedish and Norwegian. There is about a 60% overlap in word usage. However, Danish is not phonetic and impossible to pronounce by looking at the spelling of the words. There are a lot of jokes about Danish language and it was a challenge to learn as well as understand. It was however a necessity and if I had it to do over again I would spend more time in language school.

While these social democracies are not supposed to have competitive values Denmark produced 7 Olympic Medals in 1996 of which 5 were gold. The key behind their success is not the idea that they “defeat” their opponent but that they do their very best. You will not see a Danish athlete doing little victory dances or strutting around after they have beaten someone in a competition. They accept their success graciously and with a humble demeanor.

The first major difference I noticed about Denmark compared to America was that was essentially an atheist nation. There was a state supported Lutheran church but if you ask most Danes will tell they do not believe in God. Most students are exposed to religions during their education and the typical assignment for a student is to compare the values of the world religions. The students studied the common elements of the great religions of the world. When I asked them about religion they responded that their logic told them that if the religions all had common elements there must not be a God. Consequently accountability to a higher power does not exist. The highest power they observed was their government. The other big difference was that there were a lot of unwritten rules. When someone worked in a collaborative society the entire group shared equal amounts of that work. If one person took on more work it was interpreted that the hard worker thought they were better. This and many other unwritten rules were the major challenge of this society.

The Egyptian Experience
My experience in Egypt was also very satisfying and rewarding. They have a great sense of humor which is reflected in their saying that Egypt is run by IBM. This means that they will do something if it is Incha Allah (if God wills it) or they will do it Bokra (tomorrow) or they will say Millesh which means forget it they will not do it at all. I was selected as National Swimming Team coach and during 1992 had the privilege of preparing swimmers for the Darmstadt International, the Olympic Games, the African Junior Championships in Morocco and the Men’s Arab Championships in Syria. The swimmers trained diligently and as a group were dedicated as anyone I have every coached. A major contrast between Denmark and Egypt was what I call “the rules”. The rules in Egypt were either obvious or they were explained. When I first arrived in Egypt the time for prayers at sun down was about 1700. There were no exceptions, and we started workout after prayers. This was how the society operated. Europeans tend to have more unwritten rules and an expatriate might do something unknowingly and someone may never speak to you for the rest of your life. This would never happen in Egypt. They explain their customs, the rules and expectations and one would never fall into the aforementioned situation. For instance, when I was coaching girls I never talked with them at the pool side while they stood in their wet suits. I waited until they were covered with a bath robe. It was greatly appreciated by everyone concerned. In America and in Denmark we are more casual about things like modesty and appropriate behavior around the opposite gender. In Denmark the young women would swim in men’s suits when we were at training camps.

Another contrast is the religious faith of the Egyptians. Ninety-seven percent of all Egyptians follow Islam and the rest are generally Christian. If you were to present them with the concept that all the great religions have many common values they would respond with ” that shows there is a God.” Islam is the fiber of their community and gives them structure by which to live. Its values provide an excellent background for competitive swimmers to develop. There is no alcohol use and no adolescent sub-culture. Consequently there are no competing forces to distract them from training. If the swimmers are given a good environment for training, incentives that are consistent and rewards they will train as hard an anyone in the world. Americans also have a strong religious tradition, however it does not permeate their daily lives as much it does the Egyptians. Americans have religious and secular values that govern their daily lives, where as the Danes values are entirely secular. A serious effort to understand the value systems or systems of belief are essential for success when working in a foreign land.

Structure and Ideals of the Educational System in Denmark
It is important to understand the educational system of any host country. If you are coaching young people they will be in the process of being educated and have a variety of stresses that are different from your own country. Following 1-2 years of kindergarten each student starts first grade with a class of twenty students which will stay together as a group until they finish 9th or 10th grade. The class will have projects together and each week they will be in some classes together. They grow up knowing one another, participating in social activities while taking on many values common to that group of students. The class is led by the same teacher beginning in first grade. This teacher will obviously have a significant influence on these students after having them in class for ten years. This is the first formal step by which young people are socialized by their peers and by a social institution. The students begin to live by the values of their peers rather than the values that may be unique to their family. It is a very important convention and is used for maintaining a homogeneous society (2).

The Teacher in Denmark
As an expatriate coach your closest colleagues may often be school teachers. Most of your peers will be part time coaches and in that respect may have different values. If your colleagues are teachers and you interact with them you should have some basic understanding of the educational system. The teacher in the lower school is educated at a Seminarium which is a four- year University education especially for Lower School teacher preparation. They study two academic specialties and spend four years learning these specialties as well as acquiring the ability to teach through practical experience with their peers. There are no formal education type courses in this curriculum. After graduation from Seminarium the teacher will apprentice for up to three years at full salary.

To teach in Gymnasium, the college preparatory high school, the teacher must have a master’s degree in his or her specialty and usually will only teach that specialty. In order to teach a second subject the teacher must have spent an extra year in that curriculum at the Master’s degree level. They have no education courses in their preparation and do not spend time during their university education learning to teach. However, everyone spends the first 3 years under the supervision of other faculty.

The working conditions of the teachers are outstanding. There are no more than twenty students in any class. Each class lasts 40 minutes, leaving a twenty minute break between classes. They have a maximum of fifteen student contact hours per week with the rest of the time used to grade assignments and preparation. Salary is increased every year and at the end of forty years a teacher’s the salary will be similar to that of a physician in general practice

The Educational System in Denmark.
When I first arrived in Denmark I realized the swimmers I would be coaching for the next 3 years would be involved in education. Thererfore, I needed to spend a lot of time understanding the challenges they faced. Once I mastered this I was able to maintain a good training environment while understanding what they had to do to succeed in their economic system. The school systems and curriculum are run by the Ministry of Education. Each Kommune (County) has local control over its schools. Each school is identical in curriculum, financing, facilities and teachers’ salary. No school is better or worse than another school. Since housing is not segregated by income, the schools contain the identical makeup of students from families of different occupations and or professions. The whole system is extremely egalitarian.

Primary Education or Lower School
The first nine years of education are nearly identical for everyone. The classes are completely integrated until the students begin to show certain aptitudes in 5th grade and are moved into advanced classes. In addition, 5th graders begin to study English and German in addition to their native language. In southern Jyland (Jutland Peninsula), near the border with Germany, the German language has top priority, while in the rest of Denmark, English has top priority. Students are not given grades in Lower School. They have a rating in each class but the only thing that counts are the exams at the end of the year which are given by their teacher and a teacher from another school. Evaluation is extremely discreet. The basics of mathematics, natural and social sciences, languages, arts and humanities are taught each year through either 9th or 10th grade depending on the cases explained below.

Secondary Education
After 9th grade the top forty percent of the students from lower school are able to enter Gymnasium. Some students may take 10th grade and than enter Gymnasium, however, they are in the minority and only comprise another 5% of the students in a given school. All students must be recommended for Gymnasium by their class teacher and this recommendation depends heavily on their final examinations. Gymnasium lasts three years and is a college level institution. The curriculum is demanding and requires a large degree of self-discipline because of the independent projects. The academic tracks are liberal arts, languages, mathematics, science or mathematics and science. Each student completes a core curriculum comprised of courses from each of the tracks that give them a liberal arts education in addition to their specialty. In Gymnasium, there are many cooperative projects, lectures, laboratories and individual research projects. There are opportunities for practical work in a business or government for short periods of time.

Post Secondary or University Education
Everyone accepted to a University is accepted for a five year program which includes a bachelor’s degree, awarded after three years, and a master’s degree, which is awarded after five years. Everyone studying in Universities is given a stipend of 5000 Danish Kroners or 800 US dollars per month, exactly the same as the students in vocational education. This can be extended up to two extra years if a student has changed programs. These students have a very high success rate because they have taken their time and decided what they really want to do. There is no tuition for the University or Seminarium. The students can major in almost all of the same subjects as Americans. Examples are medicine, law, business, natural and social science. The equivalent of the American liberal arts degree requires proficiency in two foreign languages as well as science and mathematics and is for students wishing to become a diplomat. Generally, after the first year of University education the students work in self-directed groups (2) working on projects with the advice and guidance of a professor. There are very few formal lectures in the last two years of the bachelor’s degree and none during the master’s degree. There are usually only 2 or 3 grades given after the bachelor’s degree and only 1 or 2 at the end of the master’s degree. Like the Gymnasium, the grading is from 0 to 13 with the same constraints on the higher and lower grades.

Structure and Ideals of the Educational System in Egypt
I have less understanding of the system in Egypt because I was there just under a year. The young people attended regular school but there was a very flexible schedule. Students in the social stratum of the swimmers have tutors and special study groups. Many attend private schools and receive an International Baccalaureate from Cambridge University. The educated people in my environment were multilingual. Most were fluent in English, French or German and their own language. I encountered many young people who spoke more 3 languages fluently by the time they were 17 years old. One of the interesting things they get to do is read books from their Nobel Prize winner Nagib Mahfouz. They will read the book in their native language and than in French and English or in German and English etc. The student then learns to see how perspectives can be changed by language. I considered the Egyptian young people the best educated relative to America and Europe.

In Cairo there are many international schools which have a very reasonable tuition or can often be free to qualified student. There are several American schools, a British school, a French school, a German school that many young Egyptians attend. With the exception of the American schools they are subsidized by the governments of these countries as a method of spreading the language and culture of the given country. There are many Catholic schools in Egypt and the middle east. I asked many Muslims why they send their children to Catholic school. They told me that the Catholic educational system helped create an empathy for poor people and people who were disadvantaged. The Catholic schools prepare people for success at the university level and give the young Egyptian a broader view of the world. When students finish high school they have one month of examinations to determine if they are eligible to attend University and which University they will attend.

The Teacher in Egypt
In this case my colleagues were not teachers but primarily other coaches. Most of them were former swimmers who came from every walk of life. Teachers are well educated and prepared but they were not working in my environment. The teachers are well educated, multilingual and many have had overseas experience. The best teachers make good money tutoring students in the evenings. The tutors work with groups of students and they do not do homework assignments for the students, they only teach. Often times private school teachers were educated in another country.

Post Secondary or University Education
The University education is also very rigorous in Egypt compared to America. Only the very best students go to the University. There are many examinations at the end of each term. The examinations last for as long as one month. Athletes attending universities in most countries including Egypt have a much more rigorous curriculum than the typical university in America. It is important to understand this and work with the athletes so they can accomplish their goals. You can bet that in Egypt if  university athletes are competing in sports they are dedicated and will devote as much time as their studies will allow.

Observed Values in Egypt in Contrast to Denmark and America
Value 1. Faith and religious belief.

The Danes will tell you they are atheists and do not have a faith or religious belief. As previously stated their educational system teaches them religion and shows the common values of the great religions. Their conclusion is dramatically different from the Egyptians. The faith of the Danes however is rooted in their social system which provides for and sustains their life if they are unable to sustain themselves. Trying to use concepts like having faith that their training will lead to success is a somewhat foreign concept to the Danes. The Egyptians follow Islam, which sustains their entire life. Their faith is that anything can happen as long as it is God’s will or “Incha Allah”. The Egyptians who have trained for many months and are preparing for their big competition will acknowledge they are well prepared and can succeed only if it is “Incha Allah”. They have faith because they have faith in God.

Value 2. The family and society:

In Egypt, like America, the family is the most important influence in socializing the children. If you are going to have support as a coach you will have to have the support of the family. The mother is in charge of the house and the education of the children. However, one would usually discuss training with both parents. This is quite similar to America where the family is also the primary socializing agent. In Denmark, young people are socialized by their peers and the social institutions. The students class (previously described) has a strong effect on the student/athletes and their training. If they happen to have a majority of low achievers their is potential for them to pull the athlete from the training program into the “alcohol program”. There is a lot of pressure to conform and if the athletic team is not strong enough the student/athlete will easily be dominated by the cultural norm known as “Jentelavn,” which excludes ambition and hard work. Jentolovn principles reduce the self esteem of the young child and discourage individual initiative and enforce conformity (2).

Value 3. Color Blind Society – Children of God:

Both Egypt and Denmark are free from racial prejudice. It was really great to spent so much time in these environments. The Danes certainly recognize differences in skin tone and other ethnic characteristics. Their lack of prejudice is rooted in their egalitarian culture which considers everyone equals. It would be illogical for them to think otherwise. Recently, there have been problems with first generation refugees not integrating into the Danish culture. But the Danes are persistent with forcing immigrants to learn the language and accept Danish customs and values if they are going to stay. The Egyptians are the same but for different reasons. First there is hardly any recognition of differences of skin color or other anthropological variation. Egyptians have large variations in skin color and people really do not evaluate what skin tone people have. The reason is that everyone is created by God and they were made that way. To say that one of God’s creations was inferior or even different because of skin color would be very wrong in the eyes of a follower of Islam.

Value 4. Foreigners remain in Egypt but they leave Denmark

If you read the history of Egypt you will see that the title of this section is true. The most famous person to become an Egyptian was Mohammed Ali (we are not talking about the former Cassias Clay here). Mohammed Ali was a Turkish Sultan who ruled Egypt during the time of the Ottoman Empire. He eventually fought and liberated Egypt from the Ottoman Empire. The pace of life and the customs are relaxed and easy to accommodate into the life of an expatriate. It is an accepting society and you only need to follow the easy to understand customs. You are never in fear of breaking an unknown rule. In contrast, Denmark was not as easy. As previously discussed, there are many unwritten rules and customs. Danes are extremely attentive to the tone of voice used and often receive comments as insults based on their interpretation of tone. This problem is difficult to overcome particularly because the interpretation of tone in the English language comes from the meaning of tone in the context of Danish language. From the American point of view Denmark is a conformist society. On one trip to the U.S., Danish swimmers they would not purchase American Levi pants for $22.00 because the dye was slightly different than the levis which were imported from England and sold for $100. They were afraid to be different. (2) You must conform or be uncomfortable

Value 5. Trust:

Trust is something the expatriate must gain while residing and working in a foreign land. The expatriate must gain the trust of all individuals who can influence the outcome of the athletes being coached. In Denmark many of the sport governing bodies have been strongly influenced by the former East German training system which has now been completely discredited because it the results were dependent on steroid use by female athletes. However, the idea of these systems of training still exist today and the trust is based on a proper system. Because Denmark is a collective society, the faith and recognition often go to a “staff” of people rather than one responsible person. Consequently the trust must always be with the staff, not because it is a functional concept but because it is the nature of the society. In the case of trust there are similar ideas in Egypt probably because of the former Soviet influence. However, the trust must also come from the family of the athlete as well as from the athletes themselves. This trust can be built without the idea that the coach has a “system” of training. In this case Egypt was again more similar to America than to Denmark.

Value 6. Respect:

Most coaches in American gain respect from hard work and results. There are the only requirements and we as Americans tolerate a wide range of behaviors from a coach if they work hard and win. In Denmark people respect one another and verbalize this regardless of the work they are willing to put in on a coaching job. The respect comes from being a person and one cannot achieve a higher degree of respect for any amount of success. This comes from the “Jentelavn” which is translated as the Law of Jente. It is a series of sayings that sets down the rules for conformity in the society and sets up the idea in the child’s mind that everyone is equal in every way. This is a very strong opinion but my opinion is that Jentelove has a negative effect on the child’s self esteem and makes them completely dependent on the group for survival, robs them of their willingness to excel individually. Jentolovn creates many failures in the sporting arena. The Egyptians have the mentality that God’s creations deserve respect. They do not teach their children to respect each other by reducing their self esteem. They do through their religious faith and the rules by which they live. A person who works hard, sticks with the values in which they believe (Christians also) and shows respect and consideration to other people will receive respect. In either case the mutual respect is important. In Egypt you respect their way of life and faith. In Denmark the same rule applies. You cannot openly oppose institutions like Jentelove or you will fail because too many people will be against your endeavors. You have to do the best you can under the circumstances and try to restore the swimmers self-esteem as best you can.

Conclusion and Discussion
I have tried to explore some of the aspects of this society that allows young people to become extremely well educated in their area. It is truly amazing to hear a fourteen year old speak 3 languages. The education of Americans is often compared to Europeans and people living in the far east. The fact is that all Americans in high school are compared to only the most outstanding or elite students who enter Gymnasium in other countries. If vocational students were included in these studies you would see many similarities except for the outstanding language proficiency and the ability to function in the society. Comprehending the values of the society early on made it easy to develop a swim club that had declined to 30 swimmers over a 4 year period to a robust participation of 170 competitors A clear understanding of the society and of the segments with which I was involved helped me significantly. I recommend all expatriates develop an intellectual and scholarly attitude and become a student of their host nation. First and foremost to this is acquiring the language and being able to understand what people around you are saying. The rest will fall into place if you are interested in making it happen.

References
Allardt, Erik: Nordic Democracy. Det Danske Selskab, Copenhagen, Denmark 1981.
Dyrbye, H., Harris, S., Golzen, T. Xenophobes Guide to the Danes. Ravette Publishing Co. Horsham, West Sussex, United Kingdom.

2013-11-27T17:00:32-06:00February 12th, 2008|Sports Coaching, Sports Facilities, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off on Coaching in Foreign Lands: Denmark and Egypt

Entering “The Zone” : A Guide for Coaches

Ask any champion athlete whether their state of mind is an important component of sporting performance and the answer will always be the same – a resounding “YES!”. At the highest level, mindset is the crucial factor that separates winners from losers. The ideal mindset enables the body to function automatically with little conscious effort. In this optimal state, complex tasks appear to be easily accomplished and time can either stand still or rush by as the performer is completely immersed in what he or she is doing.

Coaches and sport psychologists often refer to this optimal mindset as “The Zone”. For some athletes, performance in the zone is achieved only a few times in their careers; however, with systematic training using sport psychology techniques, the zone can be entered almost at will. The aim of this article is to outline the theory, which underlies optimal psychological state, and to provide 10 techniques that can safely be recommended to athletes.

Theories of optimal performance

There have been two pioneers in sport psychology research who have devoted their lives to the investigation of optimal psychological state. First, the Hungarian Prof. Mihalyi Czikszentmihalyi introduced the concept of flow state in 1975 while the Russian, Prof. Yuri Hanin, proposed the zone of optimal functioning theory in 1980.

The concept of flow entails a state in which there is a perfect match between the perceived demands of an activity and the abilities of the performer. During flow, a performer loses self-consciousness and becomes completely immersed in the task at hand. This engenders a state in which performance is very pleasurable and intrinsically gratifying. Hence, Czikszentmihalyi refers to flow as being an autotelic experience. The term autotelic is derived from the Greek word auto which means self and telos which means end. Hence, an autotelic experience is one which is an end in itself or intrinsically rewarding. The concept of autotelic experience serves to highlight the need for emphasis on the enjoyment one can derive from participation rather than extrinsic rewards such as medals, trophies and public recognition.

Hanin’s theory is slightly different as it states that each athlete has an optimal zone of anxiety at which he or she performs at her peak. If an athlete’s anxiety leaves this zone, performance levels will invariably decrease. Prof. Hanin, who leads the Finland Research Institute for Olympic Sports, has published a great deal of empirical evidence in support of his theory. My opinion is that Hanin’s theory is useful in terms of establishing the right level of mental and bodily anxiety for peak performance to occur, while Czikszentmihalyi’s theory is useful in identifying key psychological components of flow. Once a phenomenon can be identified, it is easier to manipulate. In psychology, we refer to such manipulations as interventions and here are ten examples of interventions that you should find useful.

10 Techniques to attain optimal psychological state

Centering

Centering is an attentional control technique, which helps to calm athletes and get them focused at critical moments during their sport. It is typically used in sports which involve continuous breaks such as volleyball (during side-outs), and tennis (in-between games and sets). Centering can also be useful at the start of a short duration event such as a 400m sprint or a downhill ski race.

Instruct the athlete to begin by standing with his or her feet at shoulder width with arms at the side. The athlete should breathe deeply using the diaphragm and exhale very slowly. On breathing in, the athlete must focus attention on the area behind the navel. He or she will notice that on each in-breath, the tension in the upper body increases slightly, while on each exhalation, there is a calming sinking feeling. Once mastered, centering is a quick and effective way to attain calmness and counter the destructive effects of over-arousal.

Mental Rehearsal

Creating a mental blueprint for success is one of the best ways in which to enter the zone. Athletes should be encouraged to practice key aspects of their sport in their mind’s eye both prior to competition and, given the opportunity, during breaks in competition. Britain’s top 400m runner, Iwan Thomas, sees himself performing the perfect race before getting into his blocks. This is one of the ways in which he manages to maintain consistently high level performances.

The secret of high quality mental rehearsal involves bringing all the senses into play and using them to create life-like images. The effective combination of senses is called synaesthesis. Encourage athletes to run through sequences from their sport as if looking out through their own eyes noticing all the shapes, colours and textures. They should immerse themselves in the smells, sounds and general feel of their competitive environment. These images should be in real time and it is a good idea to play through a series of “what if” scenarios; for example, when something does not go to plan. Visualise different situations involving poor conditions, tough opponents, late starts and minor mishaps. Preparing mentally for any adversity ensures that athletes will not be stifled in competition when such situations arise. Failing to prepare is preparing to fail. Mental rehearsal is a cornerstone of success in sport.

Error Parking

Sometimes making a silly mistake or getting frustrated in competition can lead to a complete loss of concentration and a departure from the zone. To regain a state of flow after an error, you should advise athletes to “park it” by wiping it away on their shorts or on their playing implement (e.g., racquet, bat, club, etc.). Some sports people like to spit the mistake away although this is clearly not the most hygienic option! Parking an error is a way by which the error can be forgotten to enable athletes to focus on the here and now.

There are many examples of sports stars getting caught up in their mistakes or frustrations and allowing a momentary lapse of concentration to bring about a collapse in their game. A fairly recent example involves the Manchester United and England soccer star, David Beckham. Beckham was representing his country at the 1998 World Cup Finals in France. England had made it through to the second round of the finals and faced formidable opposition in the form of their old adversary, Argentina. Having been brought down by the Argentinean striker Simione, rather than wipe his frustrations away into the turf, Beckham lashed out at Simione with his heel resulting in a red card and an early departure for England from the Championships. The control of anger and frustration is an important lesson, which Beckham needs to learn. Such psychological control would be a perfect compliment to his abundant technical skills.

Losing Self-consciousness

Many sports people report that they become very distracted by the presence of spectators, officials and other competitors. The anxiety provoked by onlookers at competitions is induced by a natural fear of evaluation. Some competitors are able to turn this to their advantage, while others are completely debilitated by it. If an athlete finds it difficult to distract his/her mind from the fact that people will judge them, suggest these three simple strategies:

First, consider that any attention given to onlookers is wasted mental energy, which can be channelled into sporting performance. Channelling attention into performance will ensure that physical capabilities are maximised. Second, just prior to the competition, withdrawal from the other competitors and avoidance of communication with them is a sound strategy. This will demonstrate appropriate focus and may even cause the other competitors to feel anxious. Finally, use of a self-affirmation statement, which reinforces the required positive mindset. For example, “Fear is negative. Desire is positive”, “When the going gets tough the tough get going” or “Be cool like the Fonz”. Remember, if you can talk the talk you can walk the walk!

Using Keywords

As well as using self-affirmation statements, the use of keywords to reinforce what it is that you are trying to achieve can be very useful as part of an armoury of sport psychology techniques. For example, the world champion canoeist, Britain’s Steve Harris uses the phrase “Keep it smooth” to emphasise the smooth entry of the paddle into the water. Many golfers report using a swing thought just prior to striking the ball such as “fluid”, “relaxed” or “loose”. You should advise athletes to find one word which encapsulates what they are trying to do and to use it at critical times just to get them completely focused on what they should be doing. Hence, sprinters may use “explode”, swimmers may use “glide” and cyclists may use “spin”.

Self-hypnosis

Self-hypnosis can be used as an effective way of calming pre-competition nerves. It promotes activation of the right hemisphere of the brain and limits the conscious mental activities of the left hemisphere. Thus, self-hypnosis has a prophylactic effect against the disruptive influences of cognitive anxiety and negative self-talk.

Once mastered, hypnosis can be implemented very quickly to bring a calm and relaxed state. It simply involves focusing attention on one thought at a time. For example, you could focus on the regularity of your breathing and concentrate on breathing slowly from the diaphragm. Alternatively, as in centering, you could focus on your mid-point — the area just behind your navel. Further ways of attaining a hypnotic state involve continuously repeating a mantra such as “relax” or “easy”. Some athletes enter a trance-like state by listening to music. This will be covered in detail later, however, it should be noted that Prof. Czikszentmihalyi contends that flow is a “semi-hypnotic state”. In a sporting context, self-hypnosis is about taking control of yourself so as not to be vexed by the demands of competition.

Simulated Practice

An easy way for athletes to learn about the rigorous demands of competition so that they are able to enter the zone at will is through the use of simulated practice. This involves contriving situations, which accurately reflect what goes on in competition. Simulated practice helps athletes by once again creating a mental blueprint for how to react in particular situations. One method which we have found to be effective with young tennis players is to have one member of the group serving while the remainder attempt to create as much noise and disruption as possible. This forces the server to focus intently on the task at hand, and, over time, greatly improves their powers of concentration. I like to call this drill Mr or Ms Concentration. Crowd noise can also be played through loud speakers to simulate a competitive environment. Similar practices are useful for sprint starts, football kicks and basketball free throws. In fact, in any situation where there is emphasis on an individual, distraction practices such as this can be helpful. Other types of simulated practice involve practicing with 10 vs. 11 in team sports to emulate situations in which a player is sent off. Also, rather than practicing indoors, having sessions in cold and wet conditions builds mental toughness. Being strong mentally increases the chances of successfully entering the zone. The opportunities for simulated practice are only as limited as your imagination.

Pre-event Routine

Having a routine that is standardised but also flexible enough to adjust to differing competitive conditions can put athletes in control and make them feel both psyched and confident. For some athletes, the pre-event routine will start from the evening before a competition; however, being in control of the three minutes just prior to the start of competition is absolutely essential. You could suggest that athletes write down their pre-event routine, indicating what they do, what they are thinking and how they should feel in the hours and minutes leading up to competition.
Such routines involve the following checkpoints:

  • What is eaten and how long before competition it is consumed
  • What is packed in the kit bag
  • What mode of transport is to be used
  • How long before competition to arrive
  • What are the reporting-in procedures
  • What exactly does the warm-up routine consist of
  • What will the psych-up consist of e.g., imagery, self-statements, music etc.
  • What actions will be taken in the minute prior to start of competition
  • What is the ideal mindset on commencement of competition

The Winning Feeling

Ask athletes to think about their most successful performance ever. Encourage them to see themselves performing ……..; what were they wearing?; who were they competing against?; what was distinct about their movements? It is important for them to recreate exactly how they felt inside during their best performance and to write down every detail so that this feeling can be recreated at will. For some athletes, time speeds up when they are performing at their best and the performance is over before they really have a chance to appreciate it. For others, time will slow down and they will feel as if they have all the time in the world to perform. Either way, the winning feeling will be a unique experience which, once identified, can be recreated at will.

The Power of Sound

Music has the ability to inspire, motivate and relax the competitive athlete. Choosing the “right” music is dependent upon what you wish to gain from the listening experience: if your goal is to psych-up, it is advisable to select upbeat music with a strong driving rhythm and lyrics that reinforce what it is that you are trying to achieve. For example, “Eye of the Tiger” (Survivor), “You’re Simply the Best” (Tina Turner) “A Kind of Magic” (Queen). Conversely, if you want music to control your pre-competition anxiety it can be both sedative and inspiring at the same time. For example, “One Moment in Time” (Whitney Houston), “My Heart Will Go On” (Celine Dion) or “Easy” (Lionel Richie). Either way, rather than have specific pieces of music imposed upon them, athletes should be encouraged to make choices which reflect their own musical preferences.

Author’s note

Dr. Costas Karageorghis is a BASES accredited scientific support and research sport psychologist. He is a member of the British Olympic Association Psychology Advisory Group and is head of sport psychology at Brunel University’s Department of Sport Sciences. Further, Dr. Karageorghis is an alumnus of the USSA MSS program and acts as the United Kingdom academic representative.
E-mail: costas.karageorghis@brunel.ac.uk.

2017-08-07T15:36:25-05:00February 12th, 2008|Sports Coaching, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off on Entering “The Zone” : A Guide for Coaches

Athletics as a Predictor of Self-esteem and Approval Motivation

Abstract

Past research has found a negative correlation between the variables of self-esteem and approval motivation (Larsen, Martin, Ettinger, & Nelson, 1976). This relationship has not been explored specifically for individuals who participate in athletics. The purpose of this study was to compare athletes and non-athletes on their levels of self-esteem and approval motivation, and to determine if a positive correlation exists for athletes in contrast to the negative correlation found in the general college population. A significant difference was found between athletes and non-athletes in their levels of self-esteem and approval motivation.

Previous research has been conducted in order to identify and explore personal attributes which are associated with participation in sports. There has been a significant relationship found between athletics and the attribute of self-esteem (Kumar, Pathak, & Thakur, 1985). Studies based on the general population suggest a significant negative relationship between self-esteem and an attribute known as approval motivation. Self-esteem is defined as, “an intrapsychic structure: an attitude about the self” (Baumeister, Tice, & Hutton, 1989, p. 547). Coopersmith (1967) defined self-esteem as “the evaluation which the individual makes and customarily maintains with regard to himself” (p. 4-5). Kawash and Scherf (1975) asserted that, “there is probably no personality trait more significant in the context of total psychological functioning than self-esteem” (p. 715). Approval motivation is defined as the desire to produce positive perceptions in others and the incentive to acquire the approval of others as well as the desire to avoid disapproval (Martin, 1984; Shulman & Silverman, 1974).

Geen (1991) listed three conditions that he felt must be met before he considered approval motivation to have occurred. First, an individual must be in direct contact with a person or a group of people, such as an audience or a partner or partners in interaction. Next, the social presence has a nondirective effect. This means that the social group does not provide direct cues on how the person should act in the situation. Finally, the socially generated effect on the individual is considered an intrapsychic state, and this state is capable of initiating and/or intensify behavior.

Research has shown that an individual’s level of approval motivation can be used to predict how he or she will react to expectations or influences of others. Smith and Flenning (1971) conducted a study that investigated the connection between subjects’ need for approval and their susceptibility to subtle unintended influence of biased experimenters. They found that individuals with a high need for approval altered their behavior in the direction of the experimenter’s expectancy, while those in the low approval motivation group did not. Past research has also found a negative correlation to exist between self-esteem and approval motivation (Larsen, Martin, Ettinger, & Nelson, 1976). This indicates that as an individual’s level of self-esteem increases, their need for approval from others decreases. There is no research at this time that has examined the relationship of athletic participation on the negative correlation between self-esteem and approval motivation or on approval motivation alone. However, research has examined the affect of athletic participation and coaching style on self-esteem.

Taylor (1995) conducted a study where he compared athletic participants and nonparticipants in order to ascertain if participating in intercollegiate athletics had an effect on self-esteem. He reported that athletic participation did have a positive effect on self-esteem, but it was not strong enough to have a statistically significant effect on its own. Kumar, Pathak and Thakur (1985) compared individual athletes, team athletes, and non-athletes on their levels of self-esteem using the Self-esteem Inventory (Prasad & Thakur, 1977). The Self-esteem Inventory (Prasad & Thakur, 1977) had two subscales: the personally perceived self, and the socially perceived self. They found that individual athletes were significantly higher on personally perceived self and socially perceived self than team athletes and non-athletes.

Research examining coaching behaviors has found that a coach’s instructional style can have an impact on individual’s with low self-esteem. Smoll, Smith, Barnett, and Everett (1993) examined the effect of coach’s instructional style on self-esteem. Eighteen male head coaches and 152 male Little League Baseball players were studied with 8 of the head coaches participating in a workshop that was designed to increase their supportiveness and instructional effectiveness. A preseason measure of self-esteem of the 152 players who played under the 18 coaches was taken. Post-season measures of the players’ self-esteem were assessed and compared to their preseason score. It was found that players who scored low on self-esteem in the preseason assessment showed a significant increase in their general self-esteem scores in the postseason assessment.

There has been no research conducted at this time that has examined the variable of approval motivation among athletes. However, research investigating other aspects of athletic participation suggests a need for approval among athletes. For example, research in conformity has found that rookies and newcomers to teams quickly learn and adopt attitudes and behaviors of veteran players and team leaders. This influence can be found to affect the athletes’ beliefs and behaviors in both athletic and non-athletic situations (Carron, 1980). Also, Harris (1973) examined the motivational factors related to athletic participation and concluded that motivational forces such as love, social approval, status, security and achievement are basic components to the overall motivational structure which would encourage someone toward athletic participation. Finally, additional research conducted by Smith (1990) indicated that some athletes continue to participate in sports although they do not want to in order to avoid letting down coaches or family members (as cited in Thorton, 1990).

The purpose of this study was to compare athletes and non-athletes on levels of self-esteem and approval motivation. The researchers proposed the following hypothesis. First, there would be a significant difference between athletes and non-athletes in levels of self-esteem and approval motivation. Second, for non-athletes, as supported by past research, there would be a negative correlation between the variables of self-esteem and approval motivation. Finally, for athletes, the variables of self-esteem and approval motivation would be positively correlated.

Methods
Four hundred ninety-two undergraduate students over the age of 18 attending core courses at a small southern university volunteered to participate in this study. There were 94 athletes and 398 non-athletes with the participant’s ages ranging from 18 years to 49 years, with a mean age of 21.95 years. Participants were provided with a description of the project and inform consent forms prior to receiving the questionnaire.

After returning the signed informed consent forms, participants were given a questionnaire that contained a demographics sheet, Revised Martin-Larsen Approval Motivation Scale (MLAM) (Martin, 1984), and the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (RSS) (Rosenberg, 1989). The MLAM is a questionnaire consisting of 20 statements designed on a five point Likert-type scale. This instrument measures an individuals level of approval motivation “by assessing both the desire to receive positive evaluations and social reinforcements and avoid negative evaluations and social punishment” (Martin, 1984, p.509). The MLAM has a total range of summative scores from 20 to 100 and a total range of mean scores from one to five. Higher scores indicate a greater need for social approval while lower scores indicate a lower need for approval. This scale has stability coefficients ranging from .73 to .93, and a reliability coefficient of .79.

The RSS is a ten item Guttman scale designed to measure an individuals level of self-esteem. It is unidimensional, which means that individuals may be ranked along a single continuum from very low to very high. Scores range from 10 to 40 with higher scores indicating a higher level of self-esteem and lower scores indicating a lower level of self-esteem. This measure has been found to have a test-retest reliability of .85 (Rosenberg, 1989).

The survey required approximately 35 to 40 minutes to take and participants were allowed to withdraw at any time without penalty. Participants did not place their names on the answer sheet and their signed informed consents were kept separate from their answer sheets to insure anonymity. All participants were treated according to the ethical guidelines concerning research set forth by the American Psychological Association.

Results
The data was analyzed using a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) to determine if there was a significant difference between athletes and non-athletes on the variables of self-esteem and approval motivation. The MANOVA revealed that there was a significant main effect found between the two groups (see Table 1). The results of the MANOVA also revealed that there were no interaction effects between the two groups. This supported the first hypothesis that there was a significant difference between athletes and non-athletes on the variables of self-esteem and approval motivation.

Table 1
Degrees of Freedom, F Values, and Levels of Significance for Self-esteem and Approval Motivation
df F Sig.
Self-esteem 1 21.8685 .0001
Approval motivation 1 4.2735 .0392

A Pearson r correlation was computed to examine the nature of the relationship between the variables of self-esteem and approval motivation for both the athlete and non-athlete groups. For non-athletes, a negative correlation was found to exist between the variables of self-esteem and approval motivation (r = -.4503, p< .001). This finding is consistent with the findings of past research that examined the relationship between self-esteem and approval motivation in the general population (Larsen, Martin, Ettinger, & Nelson, 1976). The second hypothesis of this study was supported.

A negative correlation was found to exist between the variables of self-esteem and approval motivation for the group consisting of college athletes (r = -.4534, p< .001). Resulting in the rejection of hypothesis three. This finding suggests that athletes, like non-athletes, exhibit a negative correlation between the variables of self-esteem and approval motivation.

Discussion
The findings of this study suggest that there is a significant difference between athletes and non-athletes on the variables of self-esteem and approval motivation. These findings mirror those of Kumar, Pathak, and Thakur (1985) who found that athletes have higher levels of self-esteem than non-athletes. In this study, a portion of the subjects were Division I college aged athletes. There are several factors that may have contributed to these athletes having higher self-esteem than non-athletes, such as receiving special treatment. For example, many of these athletes may have received scholarships to college for their athletic skills, been allowed to travel to other schools to compete, and had access to uniforms and other athletic wear that served to set them apart from their non-athletic peers. In addition, these athletes may have received special attention from the press and fans, and received certain rewards that non-athletes have not received. Further, athletes have the unique opportunity to develop close friendships with team members and identify with the team itself.

Results of the current study indicate that there is a statistically significant difference between athletes and non-athletes on the variable of approval motivation. However, despite being statistically significant there is some question as to whether these findings have everyday applicability (see Table 2). Further research is needed to determine if there is a true behavioral difference between athletes and non-athletes on the variable approval motivation, and if so what aspect of athletic participation is responsible for this difference.

Table 2
Means and Standard Deviations for Athletes and Non-Athletes
on the Variables of Self-esteem and Approval Motivation
Mean Standard Deviation
Self-esteem Approval Motivation Self-esteem Approval Motivation
Athletes 34.1064 2.5840 4.6315 .4373
Non-athletes 31.3668 2.7045 5.2139 .5234

There are a number of possible reasons why the need for athletes to receive praise or to avoid the rejection of others, is met through sport participation. Athletes, especially at the collegiate level, receive many benefits from participating in sports. For example, athletes receive praise and support from their parents, peers, coaches, fans, and community. In addition, personal rewards are obtained through the athlete’s athletic prowess and identity with the team. Many of the athletes competing at the Division I collegiate level bring with them to college successful high school experiences in athletics. Therefore, athletes in this study may have received approval for a number of years through athletic participation. Due to the history of approval and reward associated with athletic participation, athletes may not need to engage in further approval seeking behaviors.

It should be noted that the athletes in this study are most likely the elite athletes from their high school programs. They are good at what they do and have excelled in athletics for many years. Therefore, the athletes in this study due to their history of athletic success, may be more likely to participate in Division I athletics. Athletes with low self-esteem and high needs for approval may not be as likely to reach Division I college athletics. Future research may wish to examine approval motivation and self-esteem in youth sports and high school athletics to determine if there is consistency of findings.

As predicted, there was a negative correlation found between self-esteem and approval motivation for non-athletes. This finding was consistent with those of Larsen, Martin, Ettinger, & Nelson (1976) who also examined the relationship between approval motivation and self-esteem in the general population. However, what was not predicted was the negative correlation that was found between the variables of self-esteem and approval motivation for the group of collegiate athletes. Although there was a significant difference between athletes and non-athletes on their levels of approval motivation, these results imply that athletic participation does not alter the negative relationship between self-esteem and approval motivation. The results of this study suggest that athletes are more likely to view themselves positively and see themselves as worthy and are less likely to engage in approval seeking behavior than non-athletes.

The findings of this study lead to several additional questions concerning the difference between athletes and non-athletes on the variables of self-esteem and approval motivation. Future research may wish to explore factors that contribute to the differences found in self-esteem and approval motivation for athletes, such as the number of years experience, ethnicity, gender, and types of athletic experience.

References
Baumeister, R.F., Tice, D.M., & Hutton, D.G. (1989). Self-presentational motivations and personality differences in self-esteem. Journal of Personality, 57, 547-579.

Carron, A.V. (1980). Social psychology of sport. Ithaca: Mouvement Publications.

Coopersmith, S. (1967). The antecedents of self-esteem. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman and Company.

Geen, R.G. (1991). Social motivation. Annual Review of Psychology, 42, 377-399.

Harris, D.V. (1973). Involvement in sport: A somatopsychic rationale for physical activity. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.

Kawash, G.F. & Scherf, G.W. (1975). Self-esteem, locus of control, and approval motivation in married couples. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 31, 715-720.

Kumar, A., Pathak, N., & Thakur, G.P. (1985). Self-esteem in individual athletes, team members, and nonathletes. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 61, 178.

Larsen, K.S., Martin, H.J., Ettinger, R.H., & Nelson, J. (1976). Approval seeking, social cost, and aggression: A scale and some dynamics. The Journal of Psychology,94, 3-11.

Martin, H.J. (1984). A revised measure of approval motivation and its relationship to social desirability. Journal of Personality Assessment, 48, 508-519.

Prasad, M.S. & Thakur, G.P. (1977). Manual and directions for Self-esteem Inventory. Agra: Agra Psychological Research Cell.

Rosenberg, M. (1986). Conceiving the self. Malabar, FL: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company

Shulman, A.D. & Silverman, I. (1974). Social desirability and need approval: Some paradoxical data and a conceptual re-evaluation. British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 13, 27-32.

Smith, R.E. & Flenning, F. (1971). Need for approval and susceptibility to unintended social influence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 36, 383-385.

Smoll, F.L., Smith, R.E., Barnett, N.P., & Everett, J.J. (1993). Enhancement of children’s self-esteem through social support training for youth sport coaches. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 602-610.

Thornton, J.S. (1990). Playing in pain: When should an athlete stop? The Physician and Sportsmedicine, 18, 139-142.

Taylor, D.L. (1995). A comparison of college athletic participants and nonparticipants on self-esteem. Journal of College Student Developement,36, 444-451.

2013-11-27T17:35:44-06:00February 11th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Coaching, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off on Athletics as a Predictor of Self-esteem and Approval Motivation

You Go Girl ! The Link Between Girls’ Positive Self-Esteem and Sports

Positive self-esteem is a favorable perception of one’s self, or, how happy you are with just being you. In general, feelings of self-esteem contribute to a person’s self-worth, confidence and competence. These feelings of worthiness, assurance and proficiency can influence a person’s life in regard to personal aspirations, motivation, achievement potential and relationships (Melpomene Institute, 1996). A person’s self-esteem is affected by and formed from a variety of circumstances in life, some of which are:

  • degree of parental expectations, encouragement and influence
  • degree of peer expectations, encouragement and influence
  • involvement in making of decisions
  • development of talents, hobbies or interests
  • influence and importance of role models
  • extent of emphasis on body image
  • experiences and interactions during education
  • participation in physical activity and/or sports (Kopecky, 1992)

 

Many studies have been done to investigate the self-esteem of young girls and have concluded that as girls move from grade school to high school, their self-esteem levels drop (Feldman & Elliott, 1990; Gilligan, Lyons & Hammer, 1990; How Schools Shortchange Girls, 1992). For example, one study found that 69% of grade school boys and 60% of grade school girls responded that they were “happy the way I am”. The same study found 46% of high school boys and only 29% of high schools girls reported being “happy the way I am”. Overall, girls self-esteem dropped at a rate three times that of boys. Feelings of low self-esteem in adolescence are one contributing factor that increases the likelihood of a young girl dropping out of school or becoming pregnant. The low self-esteem seen in girls does not disappear with maturity; girls with low self-esteem often grow to be women with low self-esteem. Low levels of self-esteem are linked to increased rates of depression, substance abuse, suicide and eating disorders in both adolescents and adults (How Schools Shortchange Girls, 1992; Melpomene Institute, 1996).

What can be done about the decrease in self-esteem? What can girls do to maintain their self-esteem as they mature? To answer these questions, it is important to look at what boys are doing differently from girls as both groups move from grade school to high school. One important difference to consider is the rate of sports participation among boys and girls. As girls move from grade school to high school, they drop-out of sports at a rate six times higher than boys (Women’s Sports Foundation, 1998). Could the lower rate of sports participation among girls be linked to a lower self-esteem? In order to answer the question, it is essential to consider two factors: what contributes to the development of self-esteem and the benefits of sport participation.

For girls living in the 1990s, self-esteem is linked to both physical attractiveness and physical competence. Prior to the 1990s, however, the main factor contributing to a girls’ self-esteem was physical attractiveness (Nelson, 1994). Coupling self-esteem to both competence and beauty is a step in the right direction, although it’s still unfortunate that girls place so much importance on physical attractiveness as it relates to their happiness. Recognizing that young girls often compare themselves to unrealistic standards of beauty can help parents better understand, guide and influence their children (Nelson, 1994; Women’s Sports Foundation, 1998). In attempting to de-emphasize the importance their daughters place on beauty and emphasize the importance of physical competence, parents may find it helpful to utilize the benefits of participation in sport.

Participating in sport is one way that girls can develop physical competence. Girls learn to appreciate their bodies for what they can do, instead of the perceived appearance by oneself or by others. In a sport environment girls learn to control their bodies and to rely on acquired physical skills. Partaking in sport also helps girls trust and rely on themselves and teammates while working toward common goals. In a sense, participation in sport allows each girl to become her own personal cheerleader – cheering on her physical self and what might be possible; not just standing on the sidelines, or in the bleachers, cheering others on (Nelson, 1994). Involvement in athletics provides lessons in teamwork and leadership, the development of citizenship, and community involvement. Membership in sport also offers girls a greater pool of adult role models from where they can draw guidance and support (Melpomene Institute, 1996; Murtaugh, 1988). Additionally, girls find new friends in the sport setting. For girls, this sense of friendship is essential, being liked by other girls is sometimes more important than having others see them as smart or independent (Feldman & Elliott, 1990).

 

A study published by the Women’s Sport Foundation on over 30,000 girls compared athletes to non-athletes.

The study stated that athletes were more likely than non-athletes to:

  • score well on achievement tests
  • feel “popular” among one’s peers
  • be involved in other extracurricular activities
  • graduate from high school (three times more likely)
  • attend college and obtain a bachelor’s degree
  • stay involved in sport as an adult
  • aspire to community involvement
  • not become involved with drugs (92% less likely)
  • not become pregnant (80% less likely)

(Women’s Sports Foundation, 1998).

 

It is important that parents realize the many contributions participation in sport can make to young girls’ development. The positive aspects of sport can help girls maintain their self-esteem as they make the difficult transition from grade school to high school.

References

Feldman, S. & Elliott, G. (Eds.). (1990). At the threshold: the developing adolescent. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Gilligan, C., Lyons, L., & Hammer, T. (Eds.). (1990). Making connections: The relational worlds of adolescent girls at Emma Willard School. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

How Schools Shortchange Girls – The AAUW Report. (1992). New York, NY: Marlowe & Company.

Kopecky, G. (1992). The age of self-doubt. Working Mother, July, 46-49.

Murtaugh, M. (1988). Achievement outside the classroom: The role of nonacademic activities in the lives of high school students. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 19, 383-395.

Melpomene Institute. (1996). Melpomene Institute packet -Girls, physical activity and self-esteem. St. Paul, MN.

Nelson, M.B. (1994). The stronger women get, the more men love football – sexism and the American culture of sports. New York, New York: Avon Books.

Women’s Sports Foundation. (1998). Eisenhower Park, East Meadow, New York.

2017-08-07T15:37:24-05:00February 11th, 2008|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Coaching, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology, Women and Sports|Comments Off on You Go Girl ! The Link Between Girls’ Positive Self-Esteem and Sports
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