Sports Studies and Sports Psychology – Page 69

Crowd Management: Past and Contemporary Issues

Submitted by: Spiro G. Doukas

Introduction

Before the 2004 summer Olympic Games began, organizers contracted to
Contemporary Services Corporation (CSC), an American company, for crowd
management services. During the opening and closing ceremonies, personnel
helped spectators find their seats, gave general information on the stadium
and its features and helped exit the crowds when the ceremonies and events
ended.

Why do crowds need to be managed? The best reasons are the following:
Firstly, big gatherings of people raise the odds of a dangerous occurrence
happening. Secondly, individuals within a crowd always take for granted
that others have the responsibility. Thirdly, big crowds or gatherings
of people make changes in action slower and more complicated. Fourthly,
big crowds or gatherings of people make communications slower and more
complicated. And most importantly, big crowds of people raise the possible
number of victims (Marsden, A. W, 1998).

The definition of crowd management is every component of the game or
event from the design of the stadium or arena to the game itself and the
protection of the patrons from unforeseeable risk of harm from other individuals
or the actual facility itself. The main criteria for deciding if crowd
control procedures are sufficient and proper depend on the type of event,
threats of aggression, existence and sufficiency of the emergency plan,
expectation of crowd size and seating arrangement, known rivalries among
teams and schools, and the use of a security workforce and ushers (Facilities
and Event Management, n.d.). A competent crowd management plan has appropriate
signage, an effectual communication structure, services for various disabled
individuals, a properly trained and capable staff, and procedures and
policies for all possible instances (Facilities and Event Management,
n.d.).

This paper investigates crowd management issues in sports settings and
instances of failures. Crowd management has been an area of concern in
the sports domain ever since the Olympic Games began in Ancient Olympia
around 776 B.C., up until today with the NBA, Soccer games, Football,
games, etc. Facility management has the obligation to protect their patrons
and these managers must also have an effective crowd management plan in
order to protect the character and image of the team and facility. Historically,
managing and assisting crowds has been much more effective than trying
to control them. While this area of sport is often overlooked, it is a
top priority for facility managers and for the sport itself.

The author’s interest in the topic of crowd management grew from witnessing
the aggressive fans of an NBA game during the 2004 season when fans at
Auburn Hills, Michigan fought with several players of the Indiana Pacers.
Every year throughout the world in stadiums, arenas, and other sports
related areas, crowd rushes, fires, bombs, crowd crushes, heat exhaustion,
stage collapsing, overcrowding, and rioting result in thousands of deaths.
Facility managers face many difficulties when managing crowds of 10,000
or 100,000 people.

Some research points out how the individual regresses socially, behaviorally,
and psychologically when he or she is in a large crowd. A civilized person
may emerge into behavior bordering barbarous when in a crowd and some
theories propose that aggressiveness in individuals is an innate characteristic,
which we are born with and this makes aggressive behavior inevitable at
certain times. This is where proper crowd management techniques are involved.
By having a properly trained staff, sufficient signage, an effective and
efficient communication system, an effective ejection policy and a proper
alcohol management policy in place, the risk of aggression, injuries and
death can be reduced. Information on crowd management can be gathered
through various journals, Internet sites, and the EBSCO database.

Review of Literature

Historical Examples of Crowd Management Issues

Crowd management issues can be seen from the days of ancient Greece.
In Ancient Olympia, where the Olympic Games began, women were forbidden
to watch the Games or be in the general vicinity.

Pausanias recounts there is a mountain with high precipitous cliffs,
Typeum, from which any woman caught at the Olympic Games or even on
the other side of the Alpheius would have been cast down. No woman was
caught, except Callipateira, a widow disguised as a trainer. She brought
her son to compete at Olympia (Powell, John. T, 1994, p. 11).

Her son was victorious and Callipateira “jumped over the enclosure
in which trainers had to stay, revealing herself as a woman” (Powell,
John. T, 1994, p. 11). Olympic organizers realized that she was a woman,
however; they let her go without any fines because of the respect everyone
had for her son, her brothers, and her father, all of whom had won before
at the Olympics. “A law was then passed that for future celebrations
all trainers must strip before entering the arena” (Powell, John.
T, 1994, p. 11).

Sports facilities of the ancient world did not have the same problems
of modern days. Callipateira presented a problem for facility managers
of Ancient Olympia. Although keeping women out of Olympic sites may seem
absurd today, in Ancient Greece these Olympic sites were highly sacred
and only men were allowed in these holy areas. Having seen a woman in
an Olympic arena would have upset the large crowds in the ancient stadia
and arenas, from spectators to athletes. One problem for Ancient Olympic
facility managers was how to keep women out of Olympic sites. The solution
was to have a law passed that future Games must have all trainers strip
prior to entering the arena to verify their gender.

The Olympic Games lasted from 776 B.C. till the 4th century A.D. They
did not begin again until 1896 A.D. as organized sport was not as important
during the middle ages in Europe. Today’s facility managers must
also provide proactive solutions for different contemporary problems such
as refusing entry to drunk patrons, checking patrons for weapons and other
modern day problems.

U.S. Sports Academy2015-03-27T11:39:21-05:00March 8th, 2006|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Facilities, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Gender, Age, and Race as Predictors of Sports-Viewing Behavior of Sport Management Undergraduates

Submitted by: Ashley K. Gibson & Dan Drane

Abstract

In what has traditionally been a white male-dominated industry,
there are a growing number of females and minorities assuming the position
of sport manager. This trend is attributed to increasing opportunities
for female and minority participation in sport organizations at various
levels. Such levels include recreational, interscholastic, collegiate,
and professional athletic involvement. It should be noted that coaching
and management opportunities are also increasing. The purpose of this
study was to determine which, if any, demographic variables of age, gender,
or race could significantly predict the frequency of viewing behaviors
of sport-related media for undergraduate sport management students. Based
upon the literature, credibility in a sport management role can be increased
through sport-related media consumption. Fifty-five students in the undergraduate
sport management program at a research extensive university in the Southeastern
United States participated in the study. The instrument, constructed by
the researchers, was a sixteen question survey. Using multiple linear
regression analyses, only one predictor, gender, was found to have a statistically
significant impact upon the frequency of viewing sport-related media (sport
networks). The predictors of age and race were not found to be significant.

Introduction

“Print, radio, television, the Internet: When
it comes to Americans’ media consumption, it seems just about anything
goes.”
Pamela Paul, Targeting Boomers

Due to changes in education as well as the ever-changing ethnic demographic
of America, entertainment interests have changed, particularly with sport
programming (Paul, 2003). The latest U.S. Census Report indicates there
are 38.8 million Hispanics living in America and have replaced African-Americans
as America’s largest racial minority. Numerous studies have been
conducted to address the parallel between demographics and media viewing
behaviors, however research results are still inconclusive (Jack, 1999).

Where much of the media in the past was consumed by males, the trend
is changing. In fact, women have significantly higher levels of television
exposure than their male counterparts (Besley & Shanahan, 2003). In
regard to sport programming, the number of female viewers (who watch television)
is substantial. Recent studies have indicated that women have an increasing
interest in sport events (Shachar & Emerson, 2000).

Women place more importance on personal gratification exemplified by
such things as a comfortable life, pleasure, and happiness, which in turn
is conducive to an increase in their television viewing habits. According
to McCarty & Shrum (1993), “females may perceive a certain amount
of fulfillment of personal gratification through television viewing”
(p. 92). Men on the other hand, do not find fulfillment of such values
as a comfortable life, etc. in watching television (McCarty & Shrum,
1993). Men tend to be more regular readers of newspapers than women (Besley
and Shanahan, 2003). Men have a tendency to obtain information (including
sports) from newspapers as it is a medium that is seen to produce the
most reliable information (Hudson, 2001).

In regard to age and media, research and surveys conducted by Neilsen
Media Research reveal that households headed by people between the ages
of thirty-five and fifty-four comprise 40 percent of all households (Paul,
2003). Furthermore, while much television is targeted to the youth market,
adults between the ages of thirty-five and sixty-four spend an average
of 248 minutes a day watching television. This is 22 minutes more a day,
on average, than adults eighteen to thirty-four (Paul, 2003). “In
general, television viewership increases with age” (p. 25).

The Baby Boomer generation is comprised of 78 million Americans (Paul,
2003). Considering this, many media outlets are consumed by them. “Radio
is more common to the Baby Boomer generation” (p. 26). For the younger
generation, “radio may seem old-school” (p. 26) and therefore
is not considered a substantial outlet for information.

Regarding the Internet, “adults ages 35 – 54 spend more time
online than any other demographic group” (Paul, 2003, p. 26). In
addition to this group being online, many go on the Internet more than
one time a day, with an average of 22.2 days per month versus an average
of 15.2 days per month for 18-24 year olds (Paul, 2003). Fifty-seven percent
of Baby Boomers have access at work, compared with 45 percent of all adults;
69 percent of Baby Boomers have access at home compared with 64 percent
of adults overall (Paul, 2003). Nevertheless, according to the DDB Life
Style Study, 74 percent of adults younger than Baby Boomers believe that
“the Internet is the best place to get information” (p. 26)
and sports is included in this mix.

In the case of print, a study conducted by the National Opinion Research
Center found that 75 percent of those who are aged 65 to 74 read the newspaper
on a daily basis, compared with 42 percent of the total population (Polyak,
2000). As far as television viewing is concerned, the same study found
that 33 percent of those 75 and older watch five or more hours of television
a day on a regular basis, which is more than any other age group (Polyak,
2000).

Much of the media is targeted toward youth. A study that analyzed surveys
and interviews from 8-17 year olds found that at least 61 percent of children
now have a television in their bedroom (Yin, 2004). Seventeen percent
of these children have their own personal computer (Yin, 2004). Regarding
sports and youth, extreme sports have produced the greatest gains in children’s
sport consumption. (American Demographics, 2001).

Young girls tend to favor sports in which other females participate.
Girls are twice as likely as boys to watch women’s basketball (American
Demographics, 2001). Eighty-eight percent of girls like watching the Olympics
with gymnastics and ice skating comprising 78 percent of girls’
interest (American Demographics, 2001). Interestingly, football and basketball
made the list of interest among girls with 68 percent and 67 percent respectively
(American Demographics, 2001).

In contrast, 89 percent of boys tend to be interested in football (American
Demographics, 2001). Twice as many boys as girls enjoy watching boxing
(American Demographics, 2001). Soccer is the one sport that appeared to
be relatively equal among boys and girls (American Demographics, 2001).

In regard to race and media, “people may work together during the
day, but at night they’re immersed in their own culture” (Weissman,
1999, p. 16). The different television habits among blacks and whites
continue to be vastly different. However, although differences in viewing
patterns continue among blacks and whites, the gap is closing. Sports
viewing appears to be a vehicle for closing this gap. Programs such as
Monday Night Football are shown to have similarities in viewing patterns
among racial groups (Weisman, 1996). In regard to television, blacks watch
40 percent more than whites, although this gap too is narrowing (Weisman,
1996).

As the Hispanic population in America is growing, it is particularly
important to note their media viewing patterns. Marketers have recently
taken interest in this ethnic group and the question remains whether English-or
Spanish-language programming provides the best vehicle for reaching Hispanics.
Studies indicate that many Hispanics prefer programs that reflect the
first language in which they learned to speak (Mogelonsky, 1995). Print
media are used less frequently by Hispanics. On average, they (Hispanics)
spend 36 minutes a day reading newspapers, while bilingual Hispanics only
devote about 12 minutes a day reading newspapers (Mogelonsky, 1995).

“The average Latino watches 58.6 hours of television per week,
which is 4.4 hours more than the typical non-Hispanic viewer” (Fetto,
2002, p. 14). It has been noted, according to research studies, that “Hispanics
are passionately devoted to their Spanish-language television networks”
(p. 14). However, Hispanics turn to English-language television for what
they cannot get in Spanish (Fetto, 2002). Many sports attract the greatest
number of Hispanic viewers to the six major English networks, “perhaps
because these programs are virtually nonexistent in the Spanish-language
stations” (p. 15).

While television continues to be the media of choice for Hispanics, newsmagazines
are becoming increasingly popular among this group (Fetto, 2002); however,
print has been traditionally viewed as a challenging medium (Hudson, 2001).
This is due, in part to the splintered audience of the American population,
and no single form of print media can reach everyone (Fetto, 2002).

The country of origin and media usage varies for Latinos. For example,
Cubans read, listen, and watch about 7.4 hours of media a day. Dominicans
spend 10.7 hours a day with media, followed by Central and South Americans
at 10.4 hours a day. Puerto Ricans spend 10.3 hours a day with media,
while Mexicans spend 9.2 hours (Mogelonsky, 1995). Interestingly, Central-American
Hispanics watch the most television, while Cubans spend the most time
reading print materials (Mogelonsky, 1995). Listening to the radio and
reading newspapers are the media of choice for Dominicans (Mogelonsky,
1995).

This study considers which, if any, demographic variables of age, gender,
and race significantly predict the frequency of viewing behaviors of sport-related
media among undergraduate sport management students. It is hypothesized
that the demographic variables are significant in predicting viewing behaviors.

Method

Participants
Fifty-five students in the undergraduate sport management program at a
research extensive university in the Southeastern United States participated
in the study. The sample was made up of 15 females (27.3%) and 37 males
(67.3%). 83.6% were between the ages of 21-25. 30.9% were black, 65.5%
were white, and 3.6% were classified as other. 66.7% earned less than
$15,000 a year. Students were selected by the researchers as they were
representative of the sport management undergraduate program population.

Materials
The instrument, constructed by the researchers, was a sixteen question
survey. It was reviewed by a panel of experts for face validity. The approximate
time given to complete the survey was between 10 to 15 minutes. The content
questions addressed the students’ perceptions on: the importance
of reading and viewing sport-related media in obtaining future job roles
as sport administrators, whether prior or current knowledge of a sport
issue has enhanced academic performance, whether credibility is increased
among peers if they engage in consistent viewing or reading of sports
media, whether current knowledge of the athletic industry will assist
in making future business decisions, whether staying current on athletic
trends can potentially enhance business relationships, whether sports
media outlets are able to contribute to overall professionalism, and the
importance for peers to be knowledgeable on current athletic trends. In
addition, the survey was divided into two categories: 1. reading behaviors
of sport media, which addressed the amount of time spent on Internet resources,
journal articles, magazine articles, newspaper articles, and books. 2.
viewing behaviors of sport media, which addressed the amount of time spent
watching sport movies, sport networks, local sport coverage, and national
sport coverage.

The answers to these content questions were based on a five-point
Likert type scale, with a rating of one indicating strongly agree and
a rating of five indicating strongly disagree. The frequency of viewing
and reading behaviors were also based on a five-point Likert type scale,
with a rating of one indicating never and a rating of five indicating
always.

The researchers assessed the internal reliability of the
survey. The resulting Cronbach’s alpha of .626 (after the variable “journal
article” was deleted from the survey) demonstrates that the survey
was acceptably reliable.

Procedures
The researchers obtained approval from the university’s Institutional
Review Board. Students signed forms stating that their participation in
the study was voluntary. Permission from the students’ instructors
was also obtained. Students were given a survey to complete at the beginning
of class, after a brief description of the study. Ten to fifteen minutes
was given to complete the survey. No students required any type of accommodation
in completing the survey.

Prior to running the statistical analyses, the researchers
determined that the predictors of age, race, and gender should be recoded
as effect-coded variables since they are categorical.

Results

Standard multiple linear regression analyses were conducted
to see which, if any, of the demographic variables could significantly
predict the frequency of viewing behaviors of sport-related media.

Thirty-six usable surveys were included in the statistical
analyses. The mean indicates that the participants on average view sport
networks approximately 4 times a week (Table 1).

Table 1

Sport Network Viewing
	Mean	Standard Deviation	Sample Size
Sport Networks	4.41	.84	36

It was indicated that there was a significant correlation among gender
and sport networks with a p<.05. The Pearson Correlation is r=-.624.
The direction of this relationship indicates that females on average,
view fewer sport networks per week than males. Furthermore this r value
indicates a strong relationship between the two variables. No other variables
were significant with a p< .05 (Table 2).

Table 2

Correlations between demographics
Subscale	1	2	3	4
1. Sport Networks	—	.000*	.271	.073
2. Gender		—	.297	.233
3. Age			—	.451
4. Race				—
* p<.05

The multiple correlation coefficient (R) is .65 and the multiple coefficient
of determination (R squared) is .35. This indicates that 35.2% of the
variance is accounted for in the summary. The Durbin Watson statistic
is between 1.5 and 2.5, which suggest normality. The linear combination
of predictors are significant: F(4,35)=5.758, p<.05 (Table 3)

Table 3

Analysis of Variance for Gender
Source	df	F	p
Gender	4	5.758	.001*
Within	31	.458
Total	35
* p<.05

Discussion

The researchers investigated which, if any, of the demographic variables
of age, race, and gender significantly predicted the frequency of viewing
behaviors of sport-related media. The dependant variable, “frequency
of viewing behaviors” was comprised of six behaviors that were representative
of both reading and viewing behaviors of sport media. The behaviors included
sport networks, sport movies, Internet resources, books, newspaper articles,
and magazine articles. Only one behavior, “sport networks”
was found to have any statistical significance. As stated earlier, the
analysis found that only one predictor, “gender” was statistically
significant in predicting the frequency of viewing sport networks among
the sample.

The sample size was relatively small, thus increasing the likelihood
of a Type II error in determining that most predictors did not have a
significant effect on the frequency of viewing sport-related media. The
study targeted undergraduate sport management students at one southeastern
university, thus reducing the pool of participants. Future recommendations
would include expanding the sample size by targeting multiple universities
with similar undergraduate programs. Also, the sample size could be expanded
by targeting graduate students in sport management programs at other universities.

Furthermore, the sample was relatively homogeneous in nature; most participants
were between the ages of 21-25. Another consideration is that homogeneity
existed in regard to all of the participants being enrolled in a sport
management program; it can be assumed that an interest in sports is the
norm. The study could again be expanded by targeting other students in
programs that are non-sport related. Perhaps a comparative analysis could
be conducted to determine the differences in viewing behaviors of sport
management students and non-sport management students.

Regarding the survey, the breadth of questions could be expanded to increase
reliability as well as provide more meaningful insight to the study. The
use of focus groups could also be helpful in determining the researchers’
interest in the factors that contribute to viewing sport media.

The survey questionnaire also revealed that the juxtaposition of reading
and viewing sports-related media is conducive to credibility in the sports
industry. Research studies indicate that education is a factor in determining
the frequency of viewing media in general; it can be surmised that sport
managers are well-educated, thus increasing their engagement in consuming
sport-related media. Future studies could focus on the perceived credibility
of sport administrators who engage regularly in sport media consumption.

References

American Demographics (2001, October). Good sports-children’s interest
in sports vary.
Retrieved April 12, 2004, from American Demographics Web site:
http://www.adage.com/section.cms?sectionId=195.

Besley, J., & Shanahan, J. (2004). Skepticism about media effects
concerning the
environment: Examining Lomborg’s hypotheses. Society and Natural

Resources, 17, 861-880.

Fetto, J. (2003). Me gusta TV. American Demographics, 24(11). Retrieved
May 7, 2005
From EBSCO Business Source Elite Database.

Hudson, E.D., & Fitzgerald, M., (2001). Capturing audience requires
a dragnet.
American Demographics, 134(41). Retrieved May 1, 2005 from EBSCO Business

Source Elite Database.

Jack, C., (1999, September). Viewing motivations and implications in
the new media
environment: Postulation of a model of media orientations. American Education
Journalism Conference. 4(36). Retrieved April 12, 2005, from AEJMC archives
Web site: http://list.msu.edu/cgi-gin/wa?=ind9900d&L.

McCarty, J., & Shrum, L.J., (1993). The role of personal values and
demographics
in predicting television viewing behavior: Implications for theory and

application. Journal of Advertising, 22(4). Retrieved May 1, 2005 from
EBSCO
Business Source Elite Database.

Mogelonsky, M., (1995). First language comes first. American Demographics,
17(10).
Retrieved May 1, 2005 from EBSCO Business Source Elite Database.

Paul, P., (2003). Targeting boomers. American Demographics, 25(2). Retrieved
May1,
2005 from EBSCO Business Source Elite Database.

Polyak, I., (2000). The center of attention. American Demographics, 22(11).
Retrieved
May 1, 2005 from EBSCO Business Source Elite Database.

Shacher, R., & Emerson, J., (2000). Cast demographics, unobserved
segments, and
heterogeneous switching costs in a television viewing choice model.
Journal of Marketing Research, 37(2). Retrieved May 1, 2005 from EBSCO
Business Source Elite Database.

Weissman, R., (1999). Different strokes. American Demographics, 21(5).
Retrieved
May 1, 2005 from EBSCO Business Source Elite Database.

Yin, S., (2004). Kiddy clickers. American Demographics, 26(1). Retrieved
May 1,
2005 from EBSCO Business Source Elite Database.

U.S. Sports Academy2015-03-27T11:37:32-05:00March 7th, 2006|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology, Women and Sports|Comments Off

Media Sports Stars and Adolescents: A Statistical Analysis of Mediated Sports Heroes Based on Self-Concept Congruity

Submitted by: Keith Strudler, Ph.D.

Abstract

Many social critics have suggested that our heavily mediated sports heroes no longer embody the ideal for adoring adolescents. This study attempts to better understand how American adolescents view these star athletes through statistical comparisons between the images of sports heroes and real and ideal self-concepts. Distances between self-concept and images of sports heroes suggest that sports heroes still embody the ideal in most areas, although not in academics and behavioral conduct.

Introduction

Throughout American history, the sports hero has been a frequently discussed, widely adored, and, particularly in recent years, heavily criticized component of society. Thanks to the invasive nature of modern media, American adolescents are now privileged to an unprecedented amount of information about their favorite star athletes. In addition to spectacular play and positive behaviors, sports fans also learn of various negative characteristics of these stars. Because of this, it has been assumed by many cultural critics that sports heroes no longer epitomize the American ideal as they did for previous generations.

Given the potential influence of today’s sports heroes, particularly with adolescents who admire these glamorized sports stars, gaining a clearer understanding of this construct is an important area of study. Therefore, this research project will address the following research questions:

How do American adolescents view their mediated sports heroes?
Do American adolescents view their sports heroes as ideal in certain areas, such as athleticism, and less ideal in others?

Literature Review

The Sports Hero

Sports has become a popular and vital area in which Americans now find their heroes, a trend that has been propelled through media since before the turn of the 20th century (“Heroes of”, 1990; Ryan, 1995; Nixon, 1984; Oriard, 1982; Simons, 1997; “Role models”, 1989; Andrews & Jackson, 2001; Windfield, 2003). One reason for this is that sports remains one area where true greatness and superior beauty can be found in a complex society (Goodman, 1993). A star athlete, unlike other mediated figures, will have rare moments when they appear to surpass mortal limitations through spectacular, seemingly impossible athletic feats (Nixon, 1984; Oriard, 1982).

The rapid growth of sports television in America has continuously increased emphasis on the American sports hero (McPherson, 1989; Davies, 1994; Harris, 1994; Harris, 1994b; Nixon, 1984; Katz, 1996). In addition to publicizing the modern sports hero, sports programs are presented to emphasize heroic actions, emotions, and personalities of star athletes, creating a strong and unique relationship between viewers and individual star athletes. (Kinkema & Harris, 1992; Coakley, 1994; Hargreaves, 1986; Hilliard, 1984; Sabo & Jensen, 1992). Americans now know more about popular sports figures than ever before, including both their on-the-field and off-the-field activities. The popular sports hero has been demystified, and fans now see greatness as well as imperfection, ranging from spousal abuse to drug use to gambling on sports (Hargreaves, 1986; Harris, 1994a; Hoagland, 1974; Coakley, 1994; McPherson et al., 1989; Messner & Solomon, 1994; Long, 1991; Nack & Munson, 1995; Starr & Samuels, 1997; Wilson & Sparks, 1996).

Despite these imperfections, many theorists still believe the modern, mass-mediated sports figure can be a hero. They have identified several characteristics that are commonly associated with this modern sports hero, including supreme athleticism on the field or court, high winning percentages, the potential to win championships, statistical records, greatness throughout a career, flair and charisma, sportsmanship, and confidence in one’s abilities (Nixon, 1984; Harris, 1994a; Harris, 1994b; Crepeau, 1985; Goodman, 1993; Smith, 1973; Porter, 1983; Starr & Samuels, 1997). Financial success and lucrative commercial endorsement deals are commonly identified qualities of the sports hero, particularly to adolescent boys who aspire to reach similar financial heights through professional athletics (“Michael Jordan’s”, 1991; Weisman, 1993; McDonald & Andrews, 2001; Wilson & Sparks, 1996; Simons, 1997). Theorists also have identified several non-performance-related characteristics of the modern hero, including civic and community involvement, academic accomplishment, strong family ties, and avoiding illegal and immoral behaviors (Walden, 1986; Smith, 1973; Harris, 1994a; Harris, 1994b; Hoagland, 1974; Nixon, 1984; Coakley, 1994).

Off-the-court actions of sports stars may have some impact on heroic classification, but on-the-court excellence has been identified as more instrumental. Nixon explained this, writing, “Wayward athletes may be excused by fans. . . in their lifestyle off the field as long as they work hard and produce on the field and. . . their behavior on or off the field does not depart too much from conventional standards” (1984, p. 174). Additionally, Archetti (2001) noted that sporting heroes can embody different qualities based on the contexts of their accomplishments. Therefore, the individualization of heroes is critical in understanding this social construct.

This study does not further attempt to summarize the universal qualities of the American sports hero, as individuals generally choose their own heroes based on personal needs and wants. This study examines whether the modern American sports hero is still viewed by individual American adolescents as meeting their personal ideal, or, as has been suggested by many, if sports heroes no longer meet this criteria. One potential means of addressing such individual characteristics and values of a sports hero to American adolescents in a standardized and measurable method is to examine self-concept, a foundation for this study.

Self-Concept

Although self-concept has been defined with several slight variations, for this study, this construct will be defined as “myself as I see myself” (Loundon & Bitta, 1979, p. 373; Dolich, 1969; Landon, 1974; Delozier & Tillman, 1972).

Two constructs of self-concept are used in this study, as follows:

The Real Self: An individual’s perception of how he/she actually is (Dolich,
1969; Birdwell, 1964; Ross, 1971; Runyon, 1977; Loundon & Bitta, 1979).
The Ideal Self: An individual’s perception of how he/she would like to be
(Delozier & Tillman, 1972; Loundon & Bitta, 1979; Runyon, 1977; Baughman & Welsh, 1962; Ross, 1971).

The construct “self-concept,” whether real or ideal, includes measures of several distinct domains. Susan Harter’s Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents, a self-concept measure for adolescents, assesses the following eight domains: scholastic competence, social acceptance, athletic competence, physical appearance, job competence, romantic appeal, behavioral conduct, and close friendship (Harter, 1988). These domains are used as the subscales of self-concept for this research.

The use of domains for research on self-concept and sports heroes is crucial because star athletes can display contradictory behaviors in different areas of their life (Starr & Samuels, 1997; Farrey, 1997; Malone, 1993; King, 2005). While no known studies have examined self-concept in reference to the selection of a sports hero, several studies have found consumers to choose products consistent with their self-concepts (Landon, 1974; Sirgy, 1983; Loundon & Bitta, 1979; Runyon, 1977; Hattie, 1992; Delozier & Tillman, 1972; Birdwell, 1964; Ross, 1971; Felker, 1974; Dolich, 1969; Krech et al., 1962). Loundon and Bitta (1979) explained, “Products and brands are considered as objects that consumers purchase either to maintain or to enhance their self-images. The choice of which brand to buy depends on how similar (or consistent) the consumer perceives the brand to be with his or her self-image” (p. 376).

Self-Concept and Mass Media Figures

Little research has addressed the selection of mass media figures with respect to self-concept or other related constructs. Caughley (1984) addressed the perceived relationship between a viewer and an admired media figure, writing, “The appeal is often complex, but the admired figure is typically felt to have qualities that the person senses in himself but desires to develop further. The admired figure represents an ideal self-image” (p. 54). Several authors have suggested that fans may choose favorite sports figures based on their perceived similarities between themselves and the athlete (Wilson & Sparks, 1996; Cole, 1996; Kellner, 1996; Harris, 1994a; Simons, 1997; “Role models”, 1989; Browne et al, 2003).

From the review of literature, the following research hypothesis predicts the place of mediated sports heroes in relation to adolescent self-concept.

Hypothesis

Adolescents choose mediated sports heroes that are closer to their ideal self-concept than to their real self-concept in various domains. This is particularly true for domains that are integral to athletic excellence. Therefore, American mediated sports heroes still epitomize the ideal more than the real self.

Methods

Subjects for Study

Subjects for this study were male high school students in grades nine and ten, approximately aged 14-16. This gender restriction prevents gender from being a confounding variable in data analysis. Additionally, researchers have suggested that male adolescents are more likely to look to mass media figures, including athletic heroes, as role models than are their female counterparts (McEvoy & Erikson, 1981).

Of the 172 valid subjects used for data analysis in this study, 120 subjects were students in a suburban private school, all participants in school athletics. The students from this school were predominantly white, with a small percentage of minorities (Asian, Hispanic, African-American). The remaining 52 subjects were participants in a sports tournament in Houston run through a local community center. These subjects, of the same grade and age parameters as the first 120 subjects, also were participants in school athletics. These subjects share similar demographics traits with the first 120 students, and the data collected from the two groups were virtually identical.

One criticism of this study may be that the students do not represent a diverse sample, decreasing external validity. However, like most studies, this study will not claim to be generalizable to all scenarios, nor is it able to address issues of race, socioeconomic status, and family/home environment.

Procedure

For this study, the image of the sports hero is compared to both one’s ideal image of one’s self, measured as ideal self-concept, and one’s real image of one’s self, or real self-concept. This will be measured across eight domains of self-concept. Therefore, three separate measures must be made. First, subjects must rate their own real self-concept (who I am). Second, subject must rate their ideal self-concept (who I want to be). Finally, subjects must rate the image of their own individually selected sports hero.

The proximity between the image of the sports hero and both the real and ideal self-concepts will be calculated, across all domains, and these distances will be examined. Statistical analysis of these distances will determine whether the image of the sports hero is closer to the ideal or to the real self.

For the measurement of real self-concept, the Adolescent Self-Perception Profile, created by Susan Harter (1988), was used. Five questions address each domain of self-concept (40 questions overall). The reliability of Harter’s test of self-concept has been determined through repeated use and examination of this instrument.

Altered versions of Harter’s test were also used to measure ideal self-concept and perceived image of the sports hero. To measure ideal self-concept, the phrase “how I am” was replaced with “how I would like to be.” Similarly, to measure the image of the sports hero, “who I am” was replaced with “what my sports hero is like.” Such a procedure for altering an existing test in this manner is derived from marketing studies that examine self-concept, product image, and purchase intentions (Dolich, 1969; Delozier & Tillman, 1972; Ross, 1971; Landon, 1974).

Test Administration

Tests were administered to small groups of approximately 10-20 students for each session. After an instructional session, subjects were instructed to pick the one athlete they most considered to be their sports hero. The athlete must be or must have been covered heavily by mass media, and the athlete could not be a personal acquaintance of the subject. Subjects were then instructed to use their individual choice of sports hero as replacement for the generic “sports hero” of the questionnaires.

The three tests were given (real self-concept, ideal self-concept, and image of the sports hero) using one questionnaire and one answer packet, in which students would place their answers for each question of real self-concept next to the counterpart answers for the same question on each of the other two constructs (ideal self, sport hero). The sequence of test administration was identical for all subjects.

Data Analysis

The following analysis was completed with the collected data for this study.

Self-Concept, Image of the Sports Hero, and Distance Scores

For each of the three constructs (real self-concept, ideal self-concept, and image of the sports hero), a mean score was calculated in each of the eight domains of self-concept. Next, distance scores were calculated to measure the distance between self-concept, both real and ideal, and the image of the sports hero. These distance scores indicate the similarity between self-concept (real and ideal) and the image of the sports hero. These two separate sets of distance scores were calculated for each of the eight domains. The distance scores between real self-concept and the image of the sports hero (for all eight domains) are referred to as “real distance scores,” while the distance scores between ideal self-concept and the image of the sports hero are referred to as “ideal distance scores.”

The difference squared model, which squares the difference between each paired set of questions and sums these differences, has been used to measure distance scores (Sirgy, 1983; Osgood et al., 1957). The formula is represented as follows:

Distance (in each domain) = (Q1, Sp Hero – Q1, SC)2 + (Q2, Sp hero – Q2, SC)2 + (Q3, Sp hero – Q3, SC)2 + (Q4, Sp hero – Q4, SC)2 + (Q5, Sp hero – Q5, SC)2.

Qn, Sp Hero = Question n from the test of the image of the sports hero.

Qn, SC = Question n from the test of self-concept.

The lower the distance score for each domain, the closer the particular domain of self-concept is to the image of the sports hero in that domain.

To determine whether the image of the sports hero fell closer to the ideal self than the real self, t-tests were used to look for a significant difference between ideal distance scores and real distance scores in each of the eight domains. These t-tests would determine whether the sports hero fell significantly closer to the ideal self than the real self in each of the eight domains, as hypothesized in this study.

Results

Chosen Sports Heroes

Ninety-nine different athletes were chosen as sports heroes for the 172 subjects, demonstrating a diversity of heroes. Broken down by sport, baseball players were chosen by the largest number of subjects (57), followed by basketball (43) and football (21). Because many of the subjects for this study were participants in a baseball tournament, the large number of subjects selecting baseball players is not surprising. Only one of the 172 male subjects chose a female sports hero, stressing both the importance of perceived similarity and of media coverage in the selection of a sports hero.

The sheer number of different athletes chosen (99) is notable. This suggests a large number of available sports heroes for adolescents and refutes the idea that only a small group of popular athletes are chosen as heroes. This also suggests that adolescents still play an active part in the selection of their sports heroes.

Self-Concept and Image of the Sports Hero

The results for the tests of self-concept, both real and ideal, are detailed in Tables 1 and 2. T-Tests confirmed a significant difference between real and ideal self-concept in each domain.

The results for the tests of the image of the sports hero are detailed in Table 3. For the image of the sports hero, the athletic domain had the highest mean score, followed by job competence, clearly also related to athletics. As with both types of self-concept, the behavior domain received the lowest mean score. Such results suggest a view of sports heroes which place a premium on supreme athletic competence, yet allow for lower levels of competence in non-athletic areas, particularly in the ability to behave in the right way.

The image of the sports hero fell in-between the real and ideal self-concepts for seven of the eight domains. The only domain for which this was not true was the behavior domain, where the mean score of the sports hero fell below both the ideal and the real self-concepts. Therefore, these subjects felt their sports hero typically falls somewhere between who they are and who they would like to be for all areas except for the behavioral domain. Subsequent analysis will determine whether the hero is significantly closer to the ideal self than the real self, as hypothesized.

Distance Scores

The 16 distance scores (eight real and eight ideal) are reported in Table 4. The lower the distance score for each domain, the closer the particular domain of self-concept is to the image of the sports hero in that domain.

Of the 16 distance scores, the six domain scores with the lowest mean scores were ideal distance scores. Additionally, eight of the ten distance scores with the highest mean scores were real distance scores, the exception being Ideal Scholastic Distance, which had the highest mean score of all. In all but one domain, Scholastic Achievement, the ideal distance score was smaller than the real distance score, meaning the sports hero was closer to the ideal self than the real self for that domain. Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients of reliability ranged from .5263 for Real Job Distance to .7655 for Real Friend Distance and from .5753 for Ideal Athletic Distance to .7320 for Ideal Friend Distance. This and average item-to-total correlations greater than .3 except for Real Job Distance (.2966) indicate that these 16 distance scores were reliable measures of the distance between self-concept and the image of the sports hero.

Comparison of Real Distance Scores to Ideal Distance Scores

The hypothesis predicted that the ideal self-concept would be closer than the real self-concept to the image of the sports hero, or that these subjects would perceive their heroes as closer to their ideal than their real self. T-Tests were done with distance scores for each of the eight domains. The results are detailed Table 5.

The hypothesis was supported for six of the eight domains of self-concept. These subjects perceived their sports heroes as closer to their ideal self than their real self in the following six domains: athletic competence, close friendship, job competence, physical appearance, romantic appeal, and social acceptance. The only two domains for which this is not true are the behavior domain and the scholastic domain. In fact, the scholastic domain is the only one of the eight domains where the image of the sports hero is actually closer to the real self-concept than the ideal self-concept, reflecting both a high ideal academic self-concept and a correspondingly low image of the sports hero’s competence in academic areas. For six of the areas of self-concept, however, it can be stated that the sports hero more closely approximates the ideal self, or who these subjects want to be, than the real self, or who these subjects currently perceive themselves to be.

Conclusions

In contrast to the opinions of many cultural theorists, the results from this research indicate that the sports hero does approach our ideal in most areas. Obviously, this might be expected for areas such as athletic competence, job competence, and physical appearance. The subjects in this study also viewed their sports heroes as closer to their ideal self in areas of romantic appeal, friendship, and social acceptance. Therefore, the modern American mediated sports hero, at least from the perspective of these adolescents, approaches the ideal in several areas that are not athletic or physical.

Conversely, in the domains of scholastic competence and behavioral conduct, these adolescents did not significantly find their sports heroes to approximate their ideal self more than their real self. Media coverage of the frequent negative behaviors of star athletes has likely contributed to this result. Further, with an increasing number of star athletes leaving school early and frequent reports of academic scandal involving athletes, adolescents may be increasingly less likely to view their sports heroes as ideal scholars who exhibit ideal behavior.

From these results, several general conclusions can be made. First, these adolescents view the mediated sports hero not a singular construct, but rather a complex entity. Athletes who are stars on the court yet less noteworthy off it can still be viewed as heroic, as fans seem capable of discerning the complexity and incongruity of their characters. Second, individuals have their own individual heroic choices and their own perspectives on what is truly ideal. Because of this, it is less important to examine whether the mediated sports hero measures up to a singular, societal measure of the ideal than it is to examine how individual sports heroes measure up to individual perceptions of the ideal. In a fragmented society with endless media outlets, this design allows for a more accurate assessment of the true social position of this figure.

Third, because mediated sports heroes do not measure up to the ideal in the scholastic and behavioral domains, questions should be raised over the possible influence of American sports heroes. Given the potential for these heroes to serve as role models for adolescents, it would be hoped that sports heroes would serve as ideal role models in these critical areas. While it is expected that the hero would serve as an ideal model in athletic and social areas, it is the scholastic and behavioral domains that provide a critical need for superior role models. For these popular figures to fall short in these two important domains is worrisome. Future research into the area of mediated sports heroes should examine the potential role modeling influence of the modern American sports hero, particularly as it relates to the ideal and less-than-ideal components of this popular figure.

Finally, researchers should pay attention to the function of media to translate meaning about popular sports figures. Clearly, the subjects for this study developed ideas about many areas of their favorite athletes, and these ideas were largely driven by media images and messages. With the increasing availability of information about popular athletes through endless new media technologies, researchers should attempt to understand where adolescents find their information about popular athletes, the types of media they use, and the messages sent through those mediated sources.

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Appendix

U.S. Sports Academy2015-03-27T13:24:41-05:00March 7th, 2006|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

War, Warrior Heroes and the Advent of Transactional Leadership in Sports Antiquity

Submitted by: Jason D. Carthen

Abstract

This paper explores the advent of a transactional leadership
paradigm in sports antiquity. Specifically, an athlete’s reaction
to means and types of intrinsic/extrinsic motivation is explored via relevant
leadership praxis. Resultant achievements on the athletic field of play
(stadion) are examined via review of an athlete’s reaction to: (a)
external influence, (b) preparation, (c) training, (d) coaching, and (e)
an established path to victory/defeat. The reactions are explored via
the dimensions of a contingent reward structure and the implications for
its adoption in order to succeed and become victorious at ancient Olympia.
The paper concludes with a summary discussion of the proffered transactional
paradigm existent in sport, and an athlete’s adherence to or subsequent
rejection of said paradigm to mediate his/her success.

Introduction

With some of the earliest accounts of sport beginning in
the fourth century; the history of sport has it’s underpinnings
in antiquity (Sansone, 1988; Valavanis, 2004; Woff, 1999). This paper
suggests a typology of “transactional leadership” as a forerunner
to the seminal theory offered later by James MacGregor Burns (Bass, 1985;
Burns, 1978). Utilizing ancient sources, this inquiry begins with the
exploration of contingent reward structure, active management by exception,
and a passive management by exception paradigm (Bass, 1985; Yukl, 2002).
In accordance with the constructs mentioned above, the advent of transactional
leadership begins via the emergence of professionalism in ancient sport
and a subsequent decline of competition simply for its benefit (Rigauer,
1981).

Summary lessons gleaned from this inquiry suggest: (a) An
athlete’s level of cognitive schema with regard to leader behavior
serves as a predictor of an athlete’s successful performance, (b)
an athlete’s successful performance is moderated by acceptance or
rejection of a transactional leadership paradigm, and (c) a certain modicum
of agreeableness must be present in order to thrive in sports specific
transactional relationships (Raglin, 2001). While this paper is conceptual
in nature; the study of transactional leadership upon athletes suggests
opportunities for future research.

Transactional Leadership

Burn’s (1978) seminal work served to promulgate two
types of leadership orientation theories, transformational and transactional
leadership. Transformational leadership is predicated on the leader’s
ability, “…to move those influenced to transcend their own
self-interests for the good of the group, organization, or country”
(Bass, 1985, p. 15). Complimentary to transformational leadership is the
theory of transactional leadership, which identifies the leader as the
catalyst for expectations, goals, and provision of recognition and rewards
when a task is completed (Bass, 1985). Transactional leadership serves
as the pathway to “contingent reinforcement”. Whereby, the
leader and follower agree on the necessary path to achieve the reward
or avert punishment (Bass, 1985; Bass & Avolio, 1994; Burns, 1978).
As a caveat, reinforcement usually portends a follower’s compliance;
however, a follower will not always act in their own best interests. For
example, in sport; transactional leadership offers a cognitive framework
which helps to explain an athlete’s willingness to subject their
body to serious injury and possibly death. Furthermore, athletes appear
to be able to call forth a level of conation that allows them to compete
even in pain. Otto Graham of the Cleveland Browns football team serves
as an example. “Hobbled by a cracked rib, he came off the bench
at his coach’s request and ran and passed his lethargic team to
victory” (Natali, 2001, p. 22). Obviously, a heightened level of
commitment to achieve the reward is paramount to an athlete’s success.

Passive management by exception

Passive management by exception suggests a hands-off leadership
approach until a subordinate or follower elicits a need for an intervention.
However, this management style creates only an opportunity for negative
feedback. Hall of fame coach Paul Brown frequently engaged in passive
management by exception. “…after an interception thrown by one
of his quarterbacks, Coach Brown walked up to him and whispered in his
ear “You’ll never, never, ever get a chance to throw that pass again”
(Bell, 1991, p. 91). This example illustrates the transactional agreement
which existed between Coach Brown (leader) and his players (followers),
whereby the followers received a reward based upon their performance or
alternatively they received a swift corrective action (The player mentioned
was traded the next day) based on their inability to perform.

Active management by exception

A leader’s willingness to intervene only when something
goes wrong is a shared construct in both active management by exception
and passive management by exception. However, the theory of “active
management by exception” did not appear until five years after Bass’s
1985 higher order construct of transformational leadership (Bass &
Avolio, 1990). In active management by exception there is a divergence
with regard to rule enforcement after a mistake is encountered. For example,
if an active plan of correction is in place prior to a mistake then the
infraction may be viewed differently by the leader. The final component
of leadership associated with transactional leadership is “Laissez-faire
Leadership” (Yukl, 2002, p. 254). This latent stage of the theory
suggests levels of passivity in the leader’s approach that are both
ineffective and border on indifference toward the follower.

Path goal theory

The effectiveness of contingent reward is predicated on
a follower’s anticipated value of the perceived reward. For this
reason, “path-goal theory” is appropriate when offering a
salient methodology associated with contingent reward (Bass, 1985; House,
1971). House (1971) intimates that path-goal theory is comprised of, “…increasing
personal payoffs to subordinates for work-goal attainment, and making
the path to these pay-offs easier to travel by clarifying it, reducing
roadblocks and pitfalls, and increasing the opportunities for personal
satisfaction en route” (p. 324). Furthermore, as the path to goal
attainment by the follower is illuminated and made accessible by the leader,
the opportunities for personal satisfaction are more accessible to the
follower (Bass, 1985).
A key determinate in the path-goal theory of motivation is related to
the leader’s ability to intervene in the sequences of goal clarity,
and guidance. “…the leader creates a supportive environment of
logical support, warmth, friendliness, and helpfulness by doing such things
as being friendly and approachable and looking out for the welfare of
the group” (House, 1971, p. 321). In summary; path-goal theory helps
to explain how contingent reward works and establishes the next section
of inquiry.

Sport in Antiquity

The Isthmian games were recognized as one of the four Pan-Hellenic
(all Greek) festivals, second in importance only to the Olympic Games
which were inaugurated in 776 B.C. In contrast to the Olympic Games which
honored Zeus as the patron deity, the Isthmian games were instituted to
honor Poseidon in 580 B.C. (Steven G. Miller, 2004; Palaeologos, 1964).
Isthmia holds special significance due to its bi-annual competition and
its importance as a trade port situated directly on the eastern side of
the Peloponnesus. The sanctuary of Poseidon where the games took place
was situated on one of the most important crossroads of ancient Greece,
the Isthmos (Golden, 1998). It’s significance is related to the
brevity between festivals and the inclusion of events such as the pentathlon,
chariot races, and horseracing (Broneer, 1999). Midway through the second
century B.C., the Isthmian Games came under the control of Corinth due
to maritime trade benefits and overseas colonization. Corinth subsequently
became renowned throughout the world for its ability to offer trade and
ease of passage (Woff, 1999). However, this renowned status would lead
to Corinth’s destruction by the Romans in 146 B.C., due to jealousy
and a need for subjugation (Grant, 2005). It was not until 44 B.C. by
the proclamation of Julius Caesar that Corinth was able to host the games
once again (Kyle, 2004). Despite the turmoil and implications of war,
the Games continued to evolve with Isthmia crafting the first “hysplex”
(starting gate) and embracing sports as a paradigm commensurate with culture
(Swaddling, 1980).

Sadly, participation in the games merely for enjoyment quickly
became a relic with the advent of professionalism in sport and society.
“The winner of the boys stadion race at the Panathenaea at Athens
received fifty amphoras of olive oil worth the equivalent of $45,000 US
dollars today” (Golden, 1998, p. 142) . Furthermore, the athlete
that did not win in the games was subject to abject disgrace and possible
retribution by their coach and judges. “You who have worked hard
enough to qualify for Olympia, ridding from your lives whatever is idle
and cowardly-proceed. Those who have not trained themselves to this level-let
them wander where they please” (Spivey, 2004, p. 78). Perhaps the
most glaring evidence for the untenable pressure to receive the “contingent
reward” is found in Perrottet’s (2004) account of an athlete
at the games:

Arrhichion: in the final of 564 B.C., was caught in a
lethal ladder hold and was expiring from asphyxiation. Inspired by a
shout from his coach, Arrhichion managed to roll over and give his opponent’s
foot a savage twist. The opponent raised the finger of surrender just
as Arrhichion died (p. 172).

In the next section; the evolution of sport reveals the
coming foundation of transactional leadership and the resultant far reaching
implications for sport in modernity.

Sport and society

Why then is the evolution of sport via a transactional paradigm
important to society? Sport has the ability to transcend all social and
cultural constraints (Yurdadon, 2005). Furthermore, the structure, forms
of behavior and interaction found in sport settings are similar to those
found in other societal settings. In other words, sport is a microcosm
of society (Frey & Eitzen, 1991; Golden, 1998). However, in day-to-day
societal functioning it does not simply end there; there are eternal constructs
that imply a preferred path or a direct relationship between the very
nature of sport and biblical instructions for humanity (Connor, 2002).
For example, the apostle Paul alludes to this very premise as he exhorts
the Corinthians with the following timeless metaphor “Do you not
know that in a race all the runners run but only one gets the prize? Run
in such a way as to get the prize” 1 Cortihians 9:24 (NIV). Indeed,
sport as a product of social reality is capable of communicating at a
level which cannot be ignored.

Emerging from this social reality is the positive concept
of “arête” which denotes (a) skill, (b) prowess, (c)
pride, and (d) excellence (Miller, 2004b). The term does not merely convey
lofty adjectives, instead it reveals a level of influence that permeates
the very existence of sport and society (Golden, 1998). Furthermore, this
level of influence is revealed in the co-existence of sport and culture
in antiquity. “…education in antiquity was set in the gymnasium,
[where] the Akademy [sic] of Plato was first and foremost a place of exercise
for the body” (Miller, 2004a, p xi). The confluence of athletics
with education reveals the interwoven concept of sport and society, whereby
the two can no longer be mutually exclusive.

In direct contrast to the example “arête”
mentioned above, the evolution of negative influences in sport and society
provides the basis for an athlete’s willingness to ascribe to a
level risk taking that is both dangerous and suggestive of cognitive dissonance.
“Those athletes who chose death over defeat were always highly revered”
(Miller, 2004a, p. 29). The preceding example served to portend the gradual
loss of athletic innocence that would herald the adoption of succeed at
all costs mentality still present today.

Bill Romanowski typifies the very nature and resolve of
an athlete from antiquity and their willingness to attain the “contingent
reward” at all costs. “Despite the effects of my first NFL
concussion, I never before experienced an injury that would remove me
from a game. Each play meant so much to me that to miss even one was like
a death sentence” (Romanowski & Schefter, 2005, p. 59). Romanowski’s
account is not too different from my own personal schema during my tenure
in the NFL. As an athlete you want to achieve the desired goals as set
forth by your coach, and quite possibly you are willing to do anything
to achieve the desired result. For example, during a conversation with
Coach Bill Parcells his assertion that “Carthen, unless you get
out there and hit somebody your going to get sent home” (B. Parcells,
personal communication, April 1994) elicited such a need to disprove his
statement that I was willing to do anything for the contingent reward,
i.e., viciously hit someone. While it may not constitute definitive research;
my NFL playing experience provides anecdotal evidence that affirms the
presence of a transactional paradigm in sport.

Continuing with the discussion of influence; the ability
of an individual to influence another individual or a group’s behavior
at any given time, suggests far reaching implications for that individual’s
locus of control (Stuntz & Weiss, 2003; Yukl, 2002). For example,
in antiquity the level of influence that a “Hellanodikai”
(coach) was able to wield provided the extrinsic motivation, leadership,
and influence necessary for an athlete’s achievement of targeted
goals. During the Olympic festival “…they could impose fines or
order whippings, and all of their decisions were final; only an appeal
to the Olympic council could overturn them, a move no athlete would take
lightly” (Perrottet, 2004b, p. 42). I posit that Bass and Avolio’s
(1994) definition of “transactional operators” appropriately
provides a lucid definition of the Hellanodikai in antiquity and some
professional coaches in modernity. “Transactional operators exist
for their own personal agenda without concern for the welfare of the others.
He or she enters into an agreement to satisfy their own personal…initiatives
and goals” (p.13). Indeed, the concept of transactional operators
in antiquity is not that far removed from some coaches in modernity.

Mental Health and Sport Performance

The premise that an athlete’s mental health dictates
their performance is not a new concept. Furthermore, the subject continues
to receive extensive inquiry (Chelladurai & Riemer, 1997; Kenow &
Williams, 1999; Raglin, 2001). In sports antiquity; an athlete’s
success was predicated on several factors, including size, preparation,
coaching, and sheer will. However, their level of self-efficacy served
as the catalyst for burgeoning victory. “Olympic champion Melancomas
of Caria …was able to keep his guard up for two days at a time, forcing
his opponents to give up from exhaustion” (Perrottet, 2004, p. 168).
While the level of self-efficacy demonstrated by Melancomas is indicative
of the value placed on contingent reward, caution is needed to stave off
a level of cognitive dissonance. For example, in order to retain electrolytes
and hormones in his system; Bill Romanowski’s contemplation of ingesting
his own urine in order to achieve the reward necessary would be unacceptable
to many elite athletes (Romanowski & Schefter, 2005). Indeed, achieving
the contingent reward both in antiquity and modernity is worthy of contemplating
the risk vs. the reward.

Discussion and Conclusion

This paper set forth the existence of a transactional paradigm
in sports antiquity. At the macro level; this paper served to polarize
the interwoven aspects of ancient sport and transactional leadership (Burns,
1978). At the micro-level; this inquiry revealed that a follower’s
adherence or rejection of contingent reinforcement serves as a road map
to follower motivation and goal attainment (Bass, 1985). Furthermore,
lessons gleaned from the research suggest sport and society are inextricably
linked, with far reaching implications for what is social reality and
what are actual playing field developments. While parallels between organizations
and the work like behavior of top-level athletic teams exist, there will
remain fertile ground for opportunities to study the complexities of effective
leadership (Frey & Eitzen, 1991; Rigauer, 1981).

References

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U.S. Sports Academy2015-03-27T11:34:48-05:00March 5th, 2006|Sports Coaching, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

An Exploration of State and Trait Anger, Anger Expression and Perfectionism in Collegiate Springboard Divers

Submitted by: Jacob Sinclair, Daniel R. Czech, A. Barry Joyner & Barry A. Munkasy

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between the
dimensions of perfectionism and various aspects of anger, such as state,
trait, and the expression of anger, for collegiate springboard divers.
The role of gender was also investigated. Forty women and 19 men were
administered the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory-2 (STAXI-2; Spielberger,
1999) and the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (F-MPS; Frost,
Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990). Data analysis showed no significant
differences between genders for any scales or subscales of anger or perfectionism.
State anger and its subscales were not significantly correlated with any
subscales of perfectionism. Anger expression scales were not found to
be significantly correlated with the subscales of perfectionism. Only
trait anger, and the subscale trait anger/ angry reaction, were found
to have significant relationships with the concern over mistakes dimension
of perfectionism. The perfectionism personal standards subscale was also
correlated with trait anger/ angry reaction.

Introduction

Many athletes strive to reach the highest levels of competition possible.
Competitors dream of the perfect game, performance, or skill execution
required of sport. Much time is invested into practice, conditioning,
and competition to provide athletes the best opportunity for a quality
experience. With such emphasis placed on attaining so difficult a goal,
resulting failures are to some extent inevitable. Individuals who exhibit
qualities characteristic of the construct “perfectionism”
may be significantly affected by these failures. How people experience
and react to failure is directly associated with the level and type of
perfectionism possessed. Those who demonstrate more adaptive perfectionistic
reactions to failures are more likely to express positive, or success
oriented, thoughts about sport. Those whose reactions align with maladaptive
perfectionism likely will exhibit negative, or failure oriented, behaviors
following failure in sport (Frost & Henderson, 1991; Hamachek, 1978).

The most common components present in the various definitions of perfectionism
are the engagement of actions and behaviors that lead to the setting of
exceptionally high standards for the purpose of being the best in a chosen
endeavor. These actions are often accompanied by highly self-critical
evaluations by the perfectionist (Burns, 1980; Frost, Marten, Lahart,
& Rosenblate, 1990; Hill, Zrull, & Turlington, 1997; Lombardi,
Florentino, & Lombardi, 1998).

Hamachek (1978) has characterized perfectionism as either normal (adaptive)
or neurotic (maladaptive). According to him, adaptive perfectionists are
those who set extremely high personal standards, are highly motivated
to do their best on every task attempted, experience pleasure while working
hard, and are able to recognize weaknesses which enable the individuals
to perceive themselves as successful, even when those high standards are
not met. In contrast, maladaptive perfectionists are characterized as
those who set unrealistic and inflexible goals, are driven by an intense
fear of failure, are extremely self-critical, and are unable to experience
satisfaction from accomplishments.

To measure perfectionism, a number of scales have been constructed (Anshel
& Eom, 2002; Burns, 1980; Garner, Olmstead, & Polivy, 1983; Randolph
& Dykman, 1998), two of which have been used the most consistently:
The Hewitt and Flett Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (HF-MPS; Hewitt
& Flett, 1991) and the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale
(F-MPS; Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990). The HF-MPS measures
three dimensions of perfectionism: Self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented
perfectionism, and socially prescribed perfectionism. The F-MPS examines
an overall perfectionism score, and six independent dimensions of perfectionism:
Concern over mistakes, personal standards, doubts about actions, parental
expectations, parental criticism, and organization.

Perfectionists, maladaptive and adaptive, require that certain standards
for themselves, others, and situations be met. When results are not perceived
to be adequate by the perfectionist, an emotional response may be elicited.
One such emotion is anger (Saboonchi & Lundh, 2003). Anger can be
described as a state emotion, or as a trait personality characteristic.
Spielberger, Jacobs, Russell, and Crane (1983) have conceptualized state
anger as the experience of negative feelings similar to being annoyed
or irritated, or to a greater extent, filled with rage. During this experience,
the autonomic nervous system can become aroused to different degrees depending
on the situation. Spielberger et al. describe trait anger as how frequently
state anger is experienced.

An exploration of perfectionism and anger by Hewitt and Flett (1991)
was one of the first to examine how these constructs may be related. Using
data from 91 university students, the study concluded that self-oriented
and socially prescribed perfectionism were correlated with anger, with
socially prescribed perfectionism being more strongly related. These results
were inconsistent with Saboonchi and Lundh (2003) who found that in a
randomly selected sample of adult men and women with a mean age of 37
years, self-oriented perfectionism had a weak correlation with anger,
but other-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism had no significant
relationship. This study concluded that anger in perfectionists was manifested
more so because of high goals not being achieved, than by any perception
regarding treatment by others. The age difference in the samples may have
confounded these results, as evidenced by another study (Hewitt et al.,
2002) using children which resulted in dissimilar conclusions. Unlike
earlier research, this study found no correlation between self-oriented
perfectionism and anger, but did indicate a relationship between socially
prescribed perfectionism and aspects of anger. This type of perfectionism
was shown to be positively correlated with outward expressions of anger
and negatively correlated with actions indicative of anger suppression.
This lack of a relationship between self-oriented perfectionism and anger
may be explained by children not holding themselves as accountable for
their actions as an adult might, and instead, lashing out at others who
are perceived to be placing unfair perfectionistic demands upon them.

The results of these studies, albeit somewhat inconclusive, do provide
evidence that socially prescribed perfectionism may have a slightly stronger
relationship with anger than with other dimensions of perfectionism. This
interesting association has seemingly been unexplored within the realm
of sport, despite consistent findings of perfectionism in athletes (Owens
& Slade, 1987) and an association between poor performances precluded
by high goal setting and anger (Fazackerley, Lane, & Mahoney, 2004).

Recently researchers began to examine perfectionism, anger, and sport
collectively. Valance and Dunn (2002a), using their newly developed sport-specific
version of the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Frost, Marten,
Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990), found that with adolescent ice hockey
players, trait anger was highly correlated with the subscales concern
over mistakes and perceived coach pressure. Perceived coach pressure,
a subscale of the sport oriented version of the F-MPS, is similar to the
parental expectations subscale of the F-MPS. The results of this study
demonstrated a significant relationship between maladaptive perfectionism
and trait anger. A follow up study examining state anger and perfectionism
implemented a situation criticality variable. Youth ice hockey players
were measured for perfectionism and state anger in two scenarios which
had different degrees of criticality to the outcome of the competition.
The results indicated that maladaptive perfectionists had higher state
anger and experienced greater levels of anger following mistakes than
adaptive perfectionists during competition, particularly during a critical
time period. The study also concluded that situation criticality, or the
extent to which a situation within a competition is perceived as critical
to the outcome, was positively correlated with emotional responses during
competition (Vallance & Dunn, 2002b).

An aesthetic sport such as springboard diving has innate characteristics
that focus on attaining perfectly executed performances. As a subjectively
scored athletic event, there is a set “perfect” score, for
which divers aim. It is plausible to believe that this standard may draw
competitors in this sport towards perfectionistic thoughts and behaviors,
which in turn may lead to situations conducive to experiencing greater
levels of anger and anger expression. If an athlete who experiences anger
consistently while engaged in sport can become more aware of how that
anger may be stemming from maladaptive perfectionism, a greater understanding
regarding the ensuing dysfunctional beliefs and actions may be attained.
This may lead to a greater control over anger, more appropriate expressions
of anger, and potentially, performances that are less affected by experiences
of anger.

Statement of Purpose

The primary purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between
the concern over mistakes and personal standards dimensions of perfectionism
with the various scales and subscales of anger, as measured by the State-Trait
Anger Expression Inventory-2 (STAXI-2; Spielberger, 1999). Secondary purposes
were to: a) examine how the parental criticism and parental expectations
subscales of perfectionism relate to state anger, trait anger, and anger
expression, and b) to explore how gender relates to the perfectionism-anger
relationships.

Methodology

Participants

Fifty-nine springboard divers, 19 men and 40 women, from varsity collegiate
teams throughout the United States participated in this study. The divers’
ages ranged from 18-26 years, had competed the previous two years, and
had a minimum of two years competitive experience. Competitive experience
was operationally defined as a minimum of six United States Diving sanctioned
meets or six NCAA Collegiate meets per year.

Instrumentations

The Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Frost, Marten, Lahart,
& Rosenblate, 1990) was used to assess the dimensions of perfectionism.
This scale consists of 35 items that use a five-point Likert scale ranging
from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree). The scale measures overall
perfectionism and six independent dimensions of perfectionism. The subscales
are concern over mistakes (CM), personal standards (PS), parental expectations
(PE), parental criticism (PC), doubts about actions (DA), and organization
(ORG). The CM subscale measures the extent to which an individual reacts
negatively to one’s own mistakes. PS measures the extent to which
a person sets high standards. The PE subscales indicates the strength
of an individual’s perceptions regarding his or her parents’
setting of high standards for the individual. PC is a measure of how a
person perceives criticism from his or her parents regarding their performances.
The subscales DA and ORG measure how satisfied or dissatisfied an individual
is with a performance or project, and how important order and neatness
is to an individual, respectively. For greater interpretation of the scores,
a directional scale was added by the primary investigator of this study.
This seven-point Likert scale measures how an individual feels perfectionism
affects his or her performance. Overall internal reliability for F-MPS
has been reported at .90 (Parker & Adkins, 1995) and has been concurrently
validated by Frost et al. with the HF-MPS (Hewitt & Flett, 1991) and
the Burns Perfectionism Scale (Burns, 1980). Frost et al. also demonstrated
a Cronbach’s alpha of .91 for this scale.

The State Trait Anger Expression Inventory-2 (Spielberger, 1999) was
used to measure trait anger, state anger, and anger expression. The STAXI-2
is a 57-item scale which uses four-point Likert scales. The first part
of the STAXI-2 is the state anger (SANG) scale. It consists of fifteen
items measuring how intensely an individual experiences anger during either
the testing period, or a time or situation specified by the test administrator.
For this study, the individuals were directed to indicate how he or she
generally feels during a competition or practice. The Likert scale for
the state anger scale ranges from 1 (Not at all) to 4 (Very much so).
The state anger scale consists of three subscales: state anger / feeling
angry (SANGF), state anger / feel like expressing anger verbally (SANGV),
and state anger / feel like expressing anger physically (SANGP). The second
part of the STAXI-2 is the trait anger (TANG) scale. This scale consists
of ten items measuring an individual’s proneness to experience angry
feelings. The Likert scale for this measure ranges from 1 (Almost never)
to 4 (Almost always). Two subscales are used to comprise the TANG scale:
Trait anger / angry temperament (TANGT) and trait anger / angry reaction
(TANGR). The final part of this inventory measures the ways in which an
individual expresses and controls anger. These scales consist of 32 items
using the same Likert scale as the TANG scale. The following scales make
up this final part of the STAXI-2: The anger expression-out (AX-O) scale,
the anger expression-in (AX-I) scale, the anger control-out (AC-O) scale,
the anger control-in (AC-I) scale, and the anger expression index (AX).
Like the F-MPS, and additional seven-point Likert directional scale was
added to measure how an individual feels anger positively or negatively
affects performance. The three primary components of the STAXI-2 have
been concurrently validated by Spielberger with various subscales of the
Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory (Buss & Durkee, 1957), Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory (Hathaway & McKinley, 1967), Spielberger’s
(1979) State-Trait Personality Inventory (as cited in Spielberger, 1999)
and the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975).

Procedures

A packet containing a cover letter, the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism
Scale, the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory-2, informed consent
forms, directions for the administration of the surveys, and a self-addressed
stamped envelope, was sent to university teams. The letter included a
rationale for the study and the possible benefits to springboard diving,
in addition to information on the length of time necessary to complete
the scales. A requested return date was also noted in the cover letter.
The informed consent form addressed issues regarding an assurance of confidentiality
and anonymity. The information in the packet was to be read by those administering
the scales.

The diving programs were contacted by either phone or email prior to
receiving the surveys. The scales were administered primarily in the practice
facilities for each team. Data were also collected at a diving competition
from those individuals who met the prerequisites. In this case, the packets
were distributed at a pre-competition meeting and were to be returned
as soon as possible. Most were returned by mail several weeks later.

A reminder email was sent two weeks prior to the return date. Packets
were mailed a second time to those programs who had requested an additional
packet. Collection ceased soon after the deadline had passed.

Results

Multiple Pearson’s Correlation analyses were conducted to examine
the relationships between: a) the F-MPS subscales CM and PS with all scales
and subscales of the STAXI-2, and b) the F-MPS subscales PE, PE, DA, and
ORG with the STAXI-2 scales SANG, TANG, and the AX Index. Because there
were 35 correlations examined and 10 independent t-tests analyzed, the
alpha level was adjusted to p < .01.

The subscale CM resulted in two significant correlations. TANG showed
a weak, positive relationship (r = .374, r2 = .140, p < .01), while
TANGR (r = .490, r2 = .240, p < .01) demonstrated a moderate, positive
relationship. No other scales or subscales of the STAXI-2 were found to
be significantly correlated with CM, and only one other scale approached
significance; AX-I (r = .310, r2 = .096, p = .019). Results for all correlations
for CM are shown in Tables 1, 2, and 3.

For the F-MPS subscale PS and the STAXI-2 scales and subscales, only
one significant correlation surfaced. TANGR was found to have a weak,
positive relationship with PS (r = .408, r2 = .166, p < .01). Two other
STAXI-2 scales approached significance: TANG (r = .307, r2 = .094, p =
.019) and AC-I (r = .310, r2 = .096, p = .018). The correlations for PS
are shown in Tables 1, 2, and 3.

For all other correlations examined, only one was found to be significant
at the alpha level of p < .01. PE was found to have a weak, positive
relationship with TANG (r = .397, r2 = .158, p < .01) as shown in Table
4.

To examine the differences between genders for the F-MPS subscales CM,
PS, PE and PC, four two-tailed independent t-tests were utilized. These
independent t-tests, along with all others used in this study, had an
alpha level adjusted to p < .01. Results show no significant differences
between men and women for the above constructs. See Table 5.

Three one-tailed independent t-tests revealed no significant differences
between genders on SANG, AX-I, and AX-O. See Table 6.

For the STAXI-2 scale TANG, a two-tailed independent t-test again resulted
in no significant differences between genders. See Table 7.

The directional scales added to the F-MPS and the STAXI-2 surveys also
resulted in no significant differences between genders. See Table 8.

To examine the differences between the correlations specified in the
hypotheses, a Fisher’s zr transformation was utilized. However,
only a single transformation contained at least one significant correlation,
thus essentially nullifying any significant results for all others, of
which there were none. The one Fisher’s zr transformation that did
contain a significant relationship, CM and PS for TANG, also resulted
in a non-significant difference between correlations.

Discussion

The data analysis on the relationship between the perfectionism subscales
and SANG resulted in unexpected outcomes. Individuals who score highly
on the CM subscale have an increased focus on errors (Frost, Marten, Lahart,
& Rosenblate, 1990) and have a greater desire to self-present positively
to others (Hamachek, 1978). Because athletes fitting this criterion are
less able to remove negative athletic related images from his or her mind
(Frost & Henderson, 1991) it was hypothesized that SANG would be positively
correlated with CM. Additionally, Hewitt and Flett (1991) found a correlation
between socially prescribed perfectionism and a measure of anger, which
although not specified, appeared to be more closely related to state anger.
Socially prescribed perfectionism has been found to be significantly correlated
with CM (Frost, Heimberg, Holt, Mattia, & Neubauer, 1993) but unexpectedly,
CM was not found to have a significant relationship with SANG for the
current study despite its correlation with AX-I approaching significance
(r = .310, r2 = .094, p = .019). This may lead to the conclusion that
those who score highly on CM may experience angry feelings, but perhaps
not during diving practice or competition, as only the SANG scale of the
STAXI-2 (Speilberger, 1999) inquires about emotions coinciding with the
diving experience.

Examining the subscales of SANG, and the relationships present with the
CM and PS subscales of perfectionism, resulted in additional counter-intuitive
findings. Vallance and Dunn (2002b) found that maladaptive perfectionists,
or those who’s CM score was high, had significant correlations with
SANGF and SANGV. The current study’s hypothesis proved to be incorrect,
in that CM did not have a significantly stronger correlation with these
subscales than did PS. In fact, PS had a stronger correlation with SANGF,
although none of these correlations were significant at p < .01.

The final SANG subscale, SANGP, also resulted in relationships with PS
and CM that were not significant. It was presumed that participating in
a sport in which the participant is under water and out of view immediately
following a performance, in addition to having the opportunity to leave
the immediate vicinity of the competitive venue during a competition or
practice, would increase the incidence of a diver’s desire to express
anger in a physical manner. Examples of these expressions might be hitting
walls under water, clenching fists or other muscles, or slamming lockers.
However, this proved not to be the case, and may be due to the fact that
two of the five items of the STAXI-2 (Spielberger, 1999) which measure
SANGP describe acting violent toward “somebody.” The participants
of this study may have interpreted “somebody” as someone else
in the practice or competition setting. In springboard diving, this is
not socially acceptable, as it may be in a few other sports, and would
potentially result in greater negative consequences.

TANG, and its subscale TANGR, were found to have the greatest number
of significant correlations. TANGR was significantly correlated with both
CM and PS, with CM having a stronger relationship. These results were
not unexpected as it follows logic that those who are most concerned with
how they appear to others naturally might experience greater levels of
anger in frustrating situations, or following a negative evaluation. However,
it was unexpected that CM had a significant relationship with TANG, but
PS did not. Hewitt and Flett’s (1991) self-oriented dimension of
perfectionism, which is significantly correlated with PS, has been found
to be positively correlated with TANG, but socially prescribed perfectionism,
which correlates with CM, was not (Saboonchi & Lundh, 2003). Because
of these previous findings, it was believed that PS would have a stronger
relationship with TANG than CM. However, results of this study showed
the opposite. These findings demonstrate some support the premise that
springboard divers who are more concerned about mistakes and how a performance
is evaluated may experience a greater frequency of angry emotions than
those who are more concerned with eclipsing self-imposed standards.

The perfectionism subscales examining perceptions of parents also resulted
in interesting findings. TANG was found to be significantly correlated
with PE, however PC was not. It appears that within the springboard diving
community, anger may be experienced in greater frequency by those who
perceive parents as having extremely high standards imposed on him or
her, than by those who perceive parents as overly critical for not meeting
certain standards. Perhaps this is due to other emotions being elicited
by those with overly critical parents, such as sadness, apathy, or resignation.
More research is needed in this area for a greater understanding of this
dynamic.

Examining gender in the context of perfectionism, anger, and springboard
diving also brought about interesting findings. Based on previous literature
(Anshel, & Eom, 2002; Flett, Hewitt, Endler, & Tassone, 1995;
Frost, Heimberg, Holt, Mattia, & Neubauer, 1993; Gotwals, Dunn, &
Wayment, 2003; Saboonchi, & Lundh, 2003) it was believed that perfectionism
would not be significantly different between genders. The results of this
study supported conclusions drawn in earlier research regarding the similarities
between how men and women experience perfectionism. What was surprising
were the differences between genders for the various scales and subscales
of anger.

Results for TANG and gender were consistent with the findings of Spielberger’s
(1999) investigation. There were no significant differences between gender
and the two subscales of TANG. This was also true for SANG and its subscales,
despite Spielberger’s findings demonstrating significantly higher
scores for men than women on each construct. In addition to Spielberger
(1999), Forgays, Forgays, and Spielberger (1997) revealed results supporting
the belief that men and women experience anger differently.

One possible explanation for the incongruence of SANG scores between
the current study and those cited above is that for Spielberger’s
(1999) study, survey items were to address the participant’s state
at the time of the test administration in a controlled setting. The participants
used in this study were asked to recall and indicate how he or she generally
felt during a competition or practice. It is possible that while diving,
similar state anger emotions may be elicited between genders, regardless
of how state anger is experienced in a more controlled setting.

With regard to anger expression, it was hypothesized that women would
score significantly higher on the AX-I scale, and men would score significantly
higher on the AX-O scale. Results showed neither to be supported, with
women actually scoring slightly higher on AX-O. It is less surprising
that AX-I scores were not significantly different, as Spielberger (1999)
had similar results. However, the assumption in this case was based on
previous findings that women experience shame with greater frequency,
and that shame is positively correlated with AX-I (Lutwak, Panish, Ferrari,
& Razzino, 2001). It was thought that being an elite athlete on display
in an individual sport such as diving, may have lead to increased instances
of shame if the athlete were to perform poorly. If this were the case,
women may experience shame with greater frequency than men, thus leading
to a greater propensity for experiencing and suppressing anger, as measured
by the AX-I scale. It appears, though, that participating in springboard
diving is not sufficient enough to alter the extent to which men and women
typically experience and suppress angry feelings.

Interestingly, women did score higher on AX-O, although not significantly.
These results refute the findings of Spielberger (1999) that men scored
significantly higher than women on this scale, and are even more noteworthy
when juxtaposed with Forgays, Forgays, and Spielberger’s (1997)
conclusion that the outward expression of anger is a more distinctive
and significant event for women than men. It is possible that the lack
of significant differences within this sample may be due to the disparity
in the number of men and women participants, but greater research is needed
regarding the uniqueness of the similarities between genders for these
typically asymmetric constructs.

Overall, findings in this study produced unexpected results. The similarities
between genders prompts the need for future research on how springboard
divers differ with samples derived from other sport populations. The relatively
small number of participants and the difference in the number of men and
women who participated may have affected these findings. Having only 59
participants may have decreased the power for the correlations and independent
t-tests to such an extent, that few correlations and independent t-tests
resulted in significance. Despite this possibility, it may be that there
is an aspect of springboard diving that either draws in a certain type
of individual to participate, or fosters similar personality characteristics
through participation.

The lack of variability in this sample decreases the ability of the results
of study to be generalizable to individuals who participate in other sports.
Because of this, differences between team and individual sports should
be examined in future studies. There appears to be a very small amount
of research examining perfectionism and anger in an athletic setting and
comparisons between team and individual sport participants has not been
a focus. With social evaluation and individualized standards, cornerstones
of the dimensions of perfectionism, varying greatly between team and individual
sports, anger and perfectionism may prove to be experienced very differently
through participation in diverse settings. More research of this kind
may lead to a greater understanding of how the perfectionism-anger dynamic
is uniquely experienced in springboard diving.

Although not specifically scrutinized in the current study, there did
appear to be differences in scores between the normal population and springboard
divers. Greater research is needed comparing the relationships of anger
and perfectionism between these groups. Understanding how these populations
differ on these constructs may shed light on the presence of conditions
that lead to the formation of relationships between the various dimensions
observed in this study.

Finally, research that has a deeper focus on the trait anger-perfectionism
dynamic is needed. This study found the strongest and greatest number
of correlations between these dimensions, and understanding why this is
the case could prove to be useful. Perfectionism is also a trait characteristic
and examining the development of these qualities, and the ties between
them, could lead to greater insight into how they may be fostered or discouraged.

Table 1
Correlations for the F-MPS subscales Concern Over Mistake (CM) and Personal
Standards (PS) and the STAXI-2 scale State Anger (SANG) and subscales
State Anger / Feeling Angry (SANGF), State Anger / Feel Like Expressing
Anger Verbally (SANGV), and State Anger / Feel Like Expressing Anger Physically
(SANGP)

	SANG	SANGF	SANGV	SANGP
CM	.189	.139	.217	.120
PS	.209	.202	.160	.210

Table 2
Correlations for the F-MPS subscales Concern Over Mistake (CM) and Personal
Standards (PS) and the STAXI-2 scale Trait Anger (TANG) and subscales
Trait Anger / Angry Temperament (TANGT) and Trait Anger / Angry Reaction
(TANGR)

	TANG	TANGT	TANGR
CM	.374**	.187	.490**
PS	.307*	.123	.408**

**Correlation is significant at the .01 level (two-tailed)
*Correlation is significant at the .05 level (two-tailed)

Table 3
Correlations for the F-MPS subscales Concern Over Mistakes (CM) and Personal
Standards (PS) and the STAXI-2 scales Anger Control-In (AC-I), Anger Control-Out
(AC-O), Anger Expression-In (AX-I), and Anger Expression-Out (AX-O)

	AC-I	AC-O	AX-I	AX-O
CM	-.092	-.177	.310*	.135
PS	.310*	.113	.234	.136

*Correlation is significant at the .05 level (two-tailed)

Table 4
Correlations for the F-MPS subscales Parental Criticism (PC), Parental
Expectations (PE), Doubts About Actions (DA), and Organization (ORG) and
the STAXI-2 scales State Anger (SANG), Trait Anger (TANG), and the Anger
Expression Index (AX)

	PC	PE	DA	ORG
SANG	.178	.159	.035	-.078
TANG	.274*	.397**	.165	.031
AX	.179	.176	.030	-.054

**Correlation is significant at the .01 level (two-tailed)
*Correlation is significant at the .05 level (two-tailed)

Table 5
Results for independent t-tests for gender on the F-MPS subscales Concern
Over Mistakes (CM), Personal Standards (PS), Parental Expectations (PE),
and Parental Criticism (PC)

Subscale	Gender (Number)	Mean	Standard Deviation	Sig.(2-tailed)
CM	Men (19)Women (40)	24.7923.33	9.076.57	.483
PS	Men (19)Women (40)	26.6825.03	5.575.07	.260
PE	Men (19)Women (40)	13.7914.65	4.383.98	.455
PC	Men (19)Women (40)	6.958.20	3.923.09	.188

Table 6
Results for independent t-tests for gender on the STAXI-2 scales State
Anger (SANG), Anger Expression-In (AX-I), and Anger Expression-Out (AX-O)

Scale	Gender (Number)	Mean	Standard Deviation	Sig. (1-tailed)
SANG	Men (19)Women (40)	26.8924.40	8.778.10	.286
AX-I	Men (19)Women (40)	17.8917.26	4.563.44	.554
AX-O	Men (19)Women (40)	14.4214.56	3.664.22	.900

Table 7
Results for independent t-test for gender on the STAXI-2 scale Trait Anger
(TANG)

Scale	Gender (Number)	Mean	Standard Deviation	Sig. (2-tailed)
TANG	Men (18)Women (40)	17.2817.25	4.744.67	.983

Table 8
Results for independent t-tests for gender on the directional scales added
to the F-MPS (PERDIRECT) and the STAXI-2 (ANGDIRECT)

Scale	Gender (Number)	Mean	Standard Deviation	Sig. (2-tailed)
PERDIRECT	Men (18)Women (38)	1.33.76	1.331.73	.223
ANGDIRECT	Men (18)Women (39)	-.28-.62	1.021.31	.339

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