ISSN: 1543-9518|Vol. 24

Eating Disorders Among Female College Athletes

Submitted By: Nikkie Smiley, Aberdeen Family YMCA, Aberdeen, S.D.,
Jon Lim, Minnesota State University, United States Sports Academy Doctoral Graduate

Abstract

The study examined attitudes about eating in relation to eating disorders, among undergraduate female student-athletes and non-athletes at a mid-size Midwestern NCAA Division II university. It furthermore examined prevalence of eating disorders among female athletes in certain sports and determined relationships between eating disorders and several variables (self-esteem, body image, social pressures, body mass index) thought to contribute to eating disorders. A total of 125 students participated in the research, 60 athletes and 65 non-athletes. The athletes played softball (n = 11), soccer (n = 12), track (n = 8), cross-country (n = 5), basketball (n = 9), and volleyball (n = 15). The Eating Attitudes Test (EAT–26) was used to determine the presence of or risk of developing eating disorders. Results showed no significant difference between the athletes and non-athletes in terms of attitudes about eating as they relate to eating disorders, nor were significant sport-based differences in likelihood of eating disorders found. Additionally, no significant relationships were found between eating disorders and self-esteem, social pressures, body image, and body mass index. Findings inconsistent with earlier research may indicate that at Division II schools, athletes experience less pressure from coaches and teammates, but further research is needed in this area. Future studies should also look at the degree of impact coaches make on the development of eating disorders in athletes.

Eating Disorders Among Female College Athletes

Eating disorders (e.g., bulimia, anorexia nervosa) are a significant public health problem and increasingly common among young women in today’s westernized countries (Griffin & Berry, 2003; Levenkron, 2000; Hsu, 1990). According to the National Eating Disorder Association (2003), 5–10% of all women have some form of eating disorder. Moreover, research suggests that 19–30% of female college students could be diagnosed with an eating disorder (Fisher, Golden, Katzman, & Kreipe, 1995). A growing body of research indicates that there is a link between exposure to media images representing sociocultural ideals of attractiveness and dissatisfaction with one’s body along with eating disorders (Levine & Smolak, 1996; Striegel-Moore, Silberstein, & Rodin, 1986). The media’s portrayal of thinness as a measure of ideal female beauty promotes body dissatisfaction and thus contributes to the development of eating disorders in many women (Levine & Smolak, 1996). Cultural and societal pressure on women to be thin in order to be attractive (Worsnop, 1992; Irving, 1990) can lead to obsession with thinness, body-image distortion, and unhealthy eating behaviors.

Like other women, women athletes experience this pressure to be thin. In addition, they often experience added pressure from within their sport to attain and maintain a certain body weight or shape. Indeed, some studies have reported that the prevalence of eating disorders is much higher in female athletes than in females in general (Berry & Howe, 2000; Johnson, Powers, & Dick; 1999; McNulty, Adams, Anderson, & Affenito, 2001; Sundgot-Borgen & Torstveit, 2004; Picard, 1999). Furthermore, the prevalence of eating disorders among female athletes competing in aesthetic sports such as dance, gymnastics, cheerleading, swimming, and figure skating is significantly higher than among female athletes in non-aesthetic or non-weight-dependent sports (Berry & Howe, 2000; O’Connor & Lewis, 1997; Perriello, 2001; Sundgot-Borgen, 1994; Sundgot-Borgen & Torstveit, 2004). For instance, Sundgot-Borgen and Torstveit found that female athletes competing in aesthetic sports show higher rates of eating disorder symptoms (42%) than are observed in endurance sports (24%), technical sports (17%), or ball game sports (16%).

Female athletes and those who coach them usually think that the thinner the athletes are, the better they will perform—and the better they will look in uniform (Hawes, 1999; Thompson & Sherman, 1999). In sports in which the uniforms are relatively revealing, the human body is often highlighted. For example, track athletes usually wear a uniform consisting of form-fitting shorts and a midriff-baring tank top. Dance and gymnastics uniforms are usually a one-piece bodysuit sometimes worn with tights. Athletes who must wear the body-hugging uniforms and compete before large crowds of people are likely very self-conscious about their physiques.

However, as is the case in most areas of study, not all research agrees. Some recent studies show that athletes are no more at risk for the development of eating disorders than non-athletes (Carter, 2002; Davis & Strachen, 2001; Guthrie, 1985; Junaid, 1998; Rhea, 1995; Reinking & Alexander, 2005). In addition, the majority of prior studies of eating disorders have restricted their samples to female athletes (and non-athletes) at National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I universities.

This study’s purpose differed in that it involved an NCAA Division II university, where attitudes about eating were studied in relation to eating disorders in undergraduate female student-athletes and non-athletes. Relationships between eating disorders and a number of variables thought to contribute to eating disorders—self-esteem, body image, social pressures, and body mass index—were furthermore examined. The student-athletes at the mid-size institution in the Midwest were also queried to assess the prevalence of eating disorders among them based on sport played. Findings of the study can assist in developing and implementing appropriate eating-disorder prevention and intervention programs for female collegiate athletes.

Methods

Participants

The participants (N = 125) in our study consisted of 60 female varsity student-athletes and 65 non-athlete students at a mid-size NCAA Division II Midwestern university. The mean age of participants was 20 years (SD = 4.3 years). The majority of participants, 93%, were Caucasian; 1% were African American; 1% were Native American; 3% were Asian American; and 2% were other. Of the student-athletes, 18.3% participated in softball (n = 11), 20% in soccer (n = 12), 13.3% in track (n = 8), 8.3% in cross-country (n = 5), 15% in basketball (n = 9), and 25% in volleyball (n = 15). Non-athlete participants were recruited from general psychology and wellness classes at the university. Participation was voluntary, anonymous, and in accordance with university and federal guidelines for human subjects.

Instruments

Eating-disorder behaviors were assessed using the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT–26), which consists of 26 items and includes three factors: dieting; bulimia and food preoccupation; and oral control (Garner & Garfinkel, 1979; Garner, Olmsted, Bohr & Garfinkel, 1982). Respondents rate each item using a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 6 (always). This instrument has been used to study eating disorders in both a clinical and non-clinical population (Picard, 1999; Stephens, Schumaker, & Sibiya, 1999; Virnig & McLeod, 1996). It is a screening test that looks for actual or initiatory cases of anorexia and bulimia in both populations (Picard, 1999). The EAT–26 has demonstrated a high degree of internal reliability (Garner et al., 1982; Ginger & Kusum, 2001; Koslowsky et al., 1992). An individual’s EAT score is equal to the sum of all the coded responses. While scores can range from 0 to 78, individuals who score above 20 are strongly encouraged to take the results to a counselor, as it is possible they could be diagnosed with an eating disorder.

The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (1965) was modified and used to assess self-esteem in this study. Responses were chosen from a 4-point scale (1=strongly agree, 4=strongly disagree). The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale is a widely used measure of self-esteem that continues to be one of the best (Blascovich & Tomaka, 1991). The scale has shown high reliability and validity (Furnham, Badmin, & Sneade, 2002).

Body mass index (BMI) was calculated (based on participants’ self-reported height and weight) as the ratio of weight (kg) to height squared (m2). Participants were categorized as underweight (BMI < 20.0), normal weight (20.0 < BMI < 25.0), overweight (25.0 < BMI < 30.0), or obese (30.0 < BMI) (National Institutes of Health, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, 1998). Additionally, demographic information, body image, and social pressures were measured.

Procedure

After obtaining approval from the university’s institutional review board, we requested and obtained permission from university athletic administrators, coaches, and class instructors to survey their female students, some of whom were student-athletes. We provided participants with an information sheet detailing the purpose of the study. We informed all the participants of their rights as human subjects prior to their completion of the survey, which took approximately 15 min. Because of the sensitive nature of the questions, participants were also informed that they could leave any questions unanswered and could discontinue participation at any time without penalty. The survey was administrated to non-athlete students during a class meeting. Female student-athletes completed the survey during their team meetings. All participants were assured anonymity because their names were not written on any individual questionnaires.

Statistical Analysis

All data were analyzed using SPSS. An independent t test was used to determine if a difference existed in attitudes about eating held by female student-athletes and non-athlete students. To compare the prevalence of eating disorders among the student-athletes based on the sport played, analysis of variance was conducted with the data. Pearson product-moment correlations were computed to examine the relationship between eating disorders and variables that contribute to eating disorders. An alpha level of .05 was used to establish statistical significance.

Results

For each participant, an EAT–26 score was calculated using all 26 items. Using the 4-point clinical scoring, participants’ scores ranged from 0 to 46, with a mean score of 14.7 (SD = 5.9). Garner et al. (1982) have defined an EAT–26 score of 20 or above as indicating a likely clinical profile of an active eating disorder. In this study, the percentage of the participants who scored 20 or above on the EAT–26 was 8.8%. Among the student-athletes, 9.3% scored 20 or above, while the percentage of non-athletes with a 20 or above was 8.3%. An independent t test was conducted to determine if there was a statistically significant difference between the two groups. As shown in Table 2, although the average EAT–26 score for the non-athlete group was higher than that of the student-athletes, analysis revealed no significant difference between the groups: t (123) = -.589, p>.05.

Table 1

Participating Female Students’ Average Score on EAT–26

Athletes (n = 60)
M ± SD		 Non-Athletes (n = 65)
M ± SD
EAT–26 Score

15.4 ± 5.8

14 ± 5.0

Values are means ± SD; n, number of subjects

The second objective of the study was to compare the prevalence of eating disorders among female athletes based on sport played. As shown in Table 2, 18.2% of the surveyed student-athletes who played softball scored 20 or above on the EAT–26; 8.3% of the student-athletes who played soccer had scores of 20 or above. Participants who competed in track scored 20 or above in 12.5 % of cases; 6.7% of those who played volleyball scored 20 or above. None of the surveyed student-athletes who participated in cross-country or basketball scored as high as 20. However, analysis of the data in terms of sport played showed that the differences in average EAT-26 scores were not statistically significant.

Table 2

Results of Female Student-Athletes’ EAT–26 Scores, by Sport Played

Frequency %
EAT–26 Scores Above 20 Below 20 Above 20 Below 20
Softball (n = 11)

2918.281.8Soccer (n = 12)1118.391.7Track (n = 81712.587.5Cross-Country (n = 5) 5 100.0Basketball (n = 9) 9 100.0Volleyball (n = 15)1146.793.3

The mean body weight for all participants was 68.1±12.9 kg and mean BMI was 22.9±9.1. The mean desired body weight, in contrast, was 62.1±8.3 kg, while mean desired BMI was 20.9±5.2. On average, participants wanted to lose 6 kg. They reported desired weight changes ranging from a 69-lb loss to a 10-lb gain. The non-athlete group had a higher average current weight (69.1 kg) and a lower average desired weight (60.5 kg) than did the student-athletes, among whom average current weight was 66.6 kg and average desired weight was 63.6 kg. The calculations of BMI for the group as a whole showed 28% of them having a BMI of 25 or more, with 38% of the non-athletes recording a BMI of at least 25 or higher and 16% of student-athletes recording a BMI of 25 or higher.

When the participants were asked how self-conscious they are about their appearance, 30.4% said they were extremely self-conscious. However, when they were asked how they feel about their overall appearance, 3.2% said they were extremely dissatisfied, and only 17.6% said they were somewhat dissatisfied. This study found that 12% of the participants reportedly always feel social pressures from friends or family to maintain a certain body image; 53.6% reported sometimes feeling such pressure concerning body image. The results also showed that 1.6% of all participants rated their overall self-esteem as very low; 24% as low; 48.8% as neutral; 22.4% as high; and 3.2% as very high.

A Pearson product-moment correlation was conducted to look for a significant relationship between eating disorders and self-esteem, social pressures, body image, and participant’s BMI. No statistical significance was found between these variables and eating disorders.

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to examine attitudes about eating in relation to eating disorders among female student-athletes and non-athletes in an NCAA Division II setting, to compare student-athletes’ rates of eating disorders based on sport played, and to examine the relationship between eating disorders and a number of variables believed to contribute to the development of disordered eating. Findings associated with the study’s first objective were not consistent with those of previous studies that found a higher percentage of eating disorders among student-athletes (Picard, 1999; Berry & Howe, 2000; McNulty et al., 2001). As to our second objective, our findings did not support earlier research suggesting that the prevalence of eating disorders among female athletes differs based on the sport played (Perriello, 2001; Picard, 1999). While the institution at which the present research was conducted had no gymnastics, dance, swimming, or cheerleading program, it did sponsor women’s track and cross-country programs. The present results for student-athletes in these two programs were not consistent with Picard’s and Perriello’s determination that track and cross-country athletes are more at risk of eating disorders than some other athletes. Findings related to the study’s third objective showed that any relationships between eating disorders and the variables self-esteem, social pressures, body image, and BMI were not statistically significant, contradicting earlier research on the development of eating disorders (Berry & Howe, 2000; Greenleaf, 2002). Some of the present findings may reflect differential exertion of pressure by coaches and teammates in institutions ranked Division II as opposed to Division I. Picard (1999) found demands to perform well to be stronger within Division I athletics, something that might be linked to a higher prevalence of eating disorders in Division I schools and athletic teams. However, more research needs to be done in this area.

This study was subject to several limitations. For example, it was conducted at the end of the academic year, timing that affected the number of participants available to complete the survey. Moreover, surveys were to be administered during class meetings, but because final examinations loomed, some instructors preferred not to take time from review to devote to the survey. In addition, with teams at or nearing the end of the competitive season, some seniors were no longer sport participants, making it difficult to administer surveys to an entire athletic team. Had the sample been larger, valid comparisons of student-athletes with non-athlete students, and of the student-athletes sport by sport, would have been more readily obtained. Conducting the study on a single Division II campus was a further limitation, related to the small sample size. Collecting data from all colleges in Division II of the NCAA would provide a greater range of individuals, both from the general student population and the population of student-athletes.

Growing numbers of workshops and presentations on eating disorders are being conducted on college campuses. Thanks to growing awareness of eating disorders, student-athletes are encouraged or even required to attend them. They learn what eating disorders are, some factors related to eating disorders, dangers posed by eating disorders, and treatment of eating disorders. Such knowledge better equips female student-athletes to avoid eating disorders.

The findings of the present study, in light of the literature in the field, suggest that future research should involve a larger segment of the NCAA Division II conference. A larger number of schools would not only create larger samples of athletes and non-athletes, it would also provide access to a wider variety of athletic teams. Another recommendation concerns timing of the survey administration. The EAT–26 should initially be completed by the two populations (student athletes, non-athlete students) at the beginning of the freshmen year and should be completed again at the end of that academic year. It would be interesting to know how many students began the freshmen year with no sign of an eating disorder, but, faced with the demands of study and pressures from friends, teammates, and coaches, became vulnerable to disordered eating.

References

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Blascovich, J., & Tomaka, K. (1991). Measures of self-esteem. In J. P. Robinson, P. R. Shaver, & L. W. Wrightsman (Eds.). Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes (pp. 115–160). San Diego: Academic Press.

Carter, J. (2002). About 15 percent of major college athletes may have symptoms of eating disorders, study suggests. Retrieved December 21, 2006, from Ohio State University Web site: http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/athlteat.htm

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Garner, D. M., Olmsted, M. P., Bohr, Y., & Garfinkel, P. E. (1982). The Eating Attitudes Test: Psychometric features and clinical correlates. Psychological Medicine, 12, 871–878.

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Greenleaf, C. (2002). Athletic body image: Exploratory interviews with former competitive female athletes. Women in Sport & Physical Activity Journal, 11(1), 63–88.

Griffin, J., & Berry, E. M. (2003). A modern day holy anorexia? Religious language in advertising and anorexia nervosa in the West. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 57(1), 43–51.

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Hawes, K. (1999). Experts say eating disorders, diet and nutrition weigh heavy on scale of issues affecting college student-athletes. Retrieved December 12, 2006, from the National Collegiate Athletic Association Web site: http://www.ncaa.org/ news/1999/19991122/ active/3624n01.html

Hsu, G. L. (1990). Eating Disorders. New York: Guilford.

Irving, L. (1990). Mirror images: Effects of the standard of beauty on the self- and body-esteem of women exhibiting varying levels of bulimic symptoms. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9, 230–242.

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Junaid, S. (1998). An analysis of eating disorder correlates in female varsity athletes. MAI, 37(1), 63.

Levine, M. P., & Smolak, L. (1996). Media as a context for the development of disordered eating. In L. Smolak, M. P. Levine, & R. Striegel-Moore (Eds.), The developmental psychopathology of eating disorders (pp. 183–204). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

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O’Connor, P., & Lewis, R. (1997). Physical and emotional problems of elite female gymnasts. New England Journal of Medicine, 336(2), 140–142.

Perriello, V. (2001). Aiming for healthy weight in wrestlers and other athletes. Contemporary Pediatrics. 18 (9), 55.

Picard, C. L. (1999). The level of competition as a factor for the development of eating disorders in female collegiate athletes. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 28, 583–594.

Rhea, D. (1995). Risk factors for the development of eating disorders in ethnically diverse high school athlete and non-athlete urban populations (Doctoral dissertation, Texas Christian University, 1995). Dissertation Abstracts International, 56(5A), 133.

Reinking, M. F. & Alexander, R.E. (2005). Prevalence of disordered-eating behaviors in undergraduate female collegiate athletes and non-athletes. Journal of Athletic Training, 40(1), 47–52.

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Sundgot-Borgen, J. (1994). Risk and trigger factors for the development of eating disorders in female elite athletes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26(4), 414–419.

Sundgot-Borgen, J., & Torstveit, M. K. (2004). Prevalence of eating disorders in elite athletes is higher than in the general population. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine, 14(1), 25–32.

Stephens, N., Schumaker, J., & Sibiya, T. (1999). Eating disorders and dieting behavior among Australian and Swazi university students. Journal of Social Psychology, 139(2), 153–158.

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Thompson, R., & Sherman, R. T. (1999). Athletes, athletic performance, and eating disorders: Healthier alternatives. Journal of Social Issues, 55(2), 317–337.

Virnig, A. G., & McLeod, C. R. (1996). Attitudes toward eating and exercise: A comparison of runners and triathletes. Journal of Sport Behavior, 9(1), 82–90.

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Author Note

Nikki Smiley, Aberdeen (South Dakota) Family YMCA; Jon Lim, Department of Human Performance, Minnesota State University Mankato. Correspondence for this article should be addressed to Jon Lim, Ed.D., Coordinator & Assistant Professor,Sport Management Graduate and Undergraduate Programs, Minnesota State University, Mankato, 1400 Highland Center (HN 176), Mankato, MN 56001, 507-389-5231 Office Phone 507-389-5618. jon.lim@mnsu.edu

2013-11-25T22:09:11-06:00April 2nd, 2008|Sports Exercise Science, Sports Facilities, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology, Women and Sports|Comments Off on Eating Disorders Among Female College Athletes
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An application of means-end theory to analyze the college selection process of female athletes at an NCAA division II university

Submitted by: Peter Finley, Nova Southeastern University,
Jeffrey J. Fountain, Nova Southeastern University

Abstract

While considerable academic attention has been given to the college selection process of student athletes, it has typically relied strictly on survey responses to determine the relative importance of numerous factors. This research applied means-end theory to the problem of understanding college selection among female student athletes at an NCAA Division II university. Through interviews with participants (N=25), the researchers were able to utilize the laddering technique (Reynolds & Gutman, 1988) to identify not only attributes of the university that were salient to the participants as they made their college selection, but also to probe deeper to determine the underlying values that made the factors important. The values cited by participants were security, achievement, belonging, and fun and enjoyment. This study highlights the function of means-end analysis to investigate college selection among student athletes going beyond the superficial identification of important factors. Via means-end interviews, researchers can determine why varied factors are important to individuals.

Review of Literature

College selection is often a difficult process for students in general and is even more complicated for student athletes, particularly those who are recruited by numerous schools (Klenosky, Templin, & Troutman, 2001). To date, considerable academic attention has been paid to assessing the relative importance of factors student athletes consider during their college selection process. The traditionally used method has been to present student athletes with a survey through which various factors were rated. The factors receiving the highest mean scores were then considered to be the most important to the prospects at the time that they made their final college selection. Factors that were commonly cited as important in the college-selection literature in regard to student athletes were concisely detailed in Kankey and Quarterman (2007), and included: (a) opportunity to play (Forseth, 1987; Johnson, 1972; Konnert & Geise, 1987; Slabik, 1995); (b) academic factors (Bukowski, 1995; Cook, 1994; Forseth, 1987, Mathes & Gurney, 1985; Reynaud, 1998; Slabik, 1995); (c) amount of scholarship (Doyle & Gaeth, 1990; Ulferts, 1992); and (d) head coach (Cook, 1994; Mathes & Gurney, 1985; Slabik, 1995).

Recent studies in this area utilized the traditional method for college selection studies. In both studies, Finley (2005), and Kankey and Quarterman (2007), original surveys were constructed and tested for validity and reliability. Surveys were then distributed in packets to coaches with an accompanying cover letter, instructions for administering the survey, and an addressed and stamped return packet. Both studies utilized five-point scales to elicit scores intended to reflect relative importance of numerous factors. Kankey and Quarterman (2007) elected to use a scale ranging from 5 (extremely important) to 1 (unimportant), while the scale used by Finley (2005) was a traditional Likert scale, ranging from 5 (very important) to 1 (very unimportant), with a neutral category.

Karney and Quarterman (2007) surveyed members of NCAA Division I softball teams in Ohio. Participants (N=196) represented 10 of the 11 programs in the state. The descriptive analysis demonstrated that this population considered availability of major or academic program, head coach, career opportunities after graduation, and social atmosphere of the team to be the most important college choice factors, with the mean score for each being above 4 (very important).

Finley (2005) sought to determine the most salient aspects of college selection among NCAA Division III cross country runners (N=427) from around the country. Results indicated that academic reputation, major or degree program, atmosphere of the campus, and the success of the cross country program were the most important. Finley (2005) also determined that the importance of team-related factors was related to the gender and ability of the athletes. Finley split the sample by gender and then subdivided each gender-group into higher and lower ability groups based on the best cross country time each participant had recorded in high school. Several factors proved to be more important to higher ability males than the other groups: The team’s performance in the prior season, the team’s performance over the last several seasons, the performance of individuals on the team last year, and the number of award-winning athletes from the program were all more important to higher-ability males than to lower-ability males or female cross country runners in both the higher and lower ability groups.

While the aforementioned research was important and contributed to the understanding of the college selection of student athletes, it did not address the question of why these factors are important. Klenosky, Templin, and Troutman (2001) introduced a new strategy for assessing college selection criteria with an eye for understanding the underlying values of the student athletes at the time they selected a college. Specifically, the researchers sought to address the “why” question through interviews with 27 NCAA Division I football players at a single university. Their application of means-end theory (Gutman, 1982) demonstrated that college-selection research can move beyond the survey format to answer the more robust question of why particular factors are important to specific participants. The football players described such factors as facilities, the coach, schedule, and academics as important. Players linked these factors to such consequences as getting a good job, personal improvement as a player, playing on television, and feeling comfortable. In turn, these consequences supported the football players’ values of feeling secure, a sense of achievement, a sense of belonging, and having a fun and enjoyable experience. While Klenosky, Templin, and Troutman (2001) successfully introduced Gutman’s means-end theory to the study of college selection by student athletes, they acknowledged that further studies should explore other levels of competition, and female student athletes. This research sought to make that contribution to the college selection literature.

Means-End Theory

Developed by Gutman (1982), means-end theory allows researchers to explore consumer choice beyond the superficial level to understand the emotional underpinnings that drive consumers’ decisions. Through interviews, researchers guide participants through levels of abstraction, moving from the superficial factors that guide their choice, to the consequences that they perceive will arise (consumers seek to maximize positive outcomes) from their choice, and finally to the personal values they are attempting to reinforce. From each attribute of a program or school that an interviewee describes as important, a means-end chain is created to explore the interconnections between the attribute, the anticipated consequences that arise from the attribute, and finally to the personal value being reinforced. The defining aspect of an interview utilizing this theory is to present the participant with the simple question, “Why is that important to you?” After they name a factor or attribute that was important in their college selection, the researcher simply seeks to determine why that factor was important. This generally leads to a connection to a consequence. Asking why the consequence was important leads into further abstraction, to a statement of a value.

According to the theory, individuals base decisions on factors that are likely to lead to desired consequences (Gutman, 1982). The privileging of one consequence over another reflects the value set of the person empowered with the choice, and they will make selections that reinforce what they have deemed valuable (Klenosky, Templin, & Troutman, 2001). While two athletes might cite the location of a school as an important factor on a traditionally used survey format, it would be unclear whether they value location because of proximity to family, the effect of weather on their sport performance, preference for a rural or suburban lifestyle, or for myriad other reasons. Through the application of means-end theory, researchers can make this determination. As applied to college selection, for example, an athlete might rate facilities as an important factor (attribute) in her college selection. Further questioning (via the “why is that important” question) can elicit the response that facilities were import because she believed it would help her play better (consequence). Finally, she might describe that playing better would reinforce her desire for personal achievement (value). See Table 1 for an example of interview responses and the corresponding coding.

Table 1

Example of two interview ladders and the corresponding coding for each

Table 1

Research Goal

 

The present study sought to apply means-end theory to determine the attributes, consequences, and values that underpinned college selection for female student athletes at an NCAA Division II institution.

Method

Procedure

 

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with two researchers and individual student athletes. The participants were asked to recall the colleges that they seriously considered as they made their final college selection. Participants were then asked to list factors (attributes) that they relied on as they selected their college over their other finalists. The researchers then utilized the laddering technique as described by Reynolds and Gutman (1988) and later applied to student athletes and college selection by Klensoky, Templin, and Troutman (2001) to create means-end chains, in which each attribute was explored via the question, “Why is that important to you?” This would elicit a response suggesting how this attribute would benefit the participant (consequence). Then the “Why is that important to you?” question would be used to move the participant into deeper reflection, moving from the consequence to a personal value. Participants would create from two to four chains and interviews generally lasted ten to fifteen minutes.

To elicit the most thoughtful and honest answers possible, the researchers utilized the interview methods suggested by Reynolds & Gutman (1988). These included conducting interviews in a non threatening environment (a library area was used, which represented a more neutral site for participants than would a professor’s office or a classroom), making an effort to position the participant as the only expert regarding their college selection, with emphasis being placed on reassuring them that there was no right or wrong answer, and showing interest in responses while refraining from giving cues suggesting judgment. Following each interview, the researchers used interview notes to create means-end chains, which connected each attribute cited by the participants with the corresponding consequences and values stemming from it. Discrepancies were resolved jointly, relying as strictly as possible on key words and phrases used by the participants and recorded in the interview notes.

Participants

The participants in this study were 25 female student athletes at an NCAA Division II university in Florida during the 2005-2006 academic year. Participants represented a variety of sports, including basketball, soccer, softball, golf, tennis, rowing, and cross country.

Results

 

In total, 77 means-end chains were created, an average of 3.08 per participant. Coding of the means-end chains revealed eight attributes cited as important to the selection of the student athletes’ current college. These attributes led to eight potential consequences, which, in turn, led to four values.

Table 2

Summary of all attributes, consequences, and values identified throughout the interview process

Table 2

Using the coded data, an implication matrix was constructed (Table 3) as a summary of the connections between attributes, consequences, and values. In addition to showing the number of participants that mentioned a concept (under N), the matrix also lists the number of total times the concept was mentioned. Each cell reflects the number of times the concept was mentioned. For example, location linked to the consequence of feel comfort (C1), three times and connected to the consequence of adventure (C3) twelve times. Location also connected to the value fun and enjoyment (V1) fifteen times. The implication matrix was then used to construct a Hierarchical Value Map (HVM).

table 3

Implication Matrix for female student athletes’ college selection

N Chains C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 V1 V2 V3 V4
Attributes
A1 Location 22 30 3 1 12 1 5 8 15 5 8 2
A2 Scholarship 16 16 13 3 7 9
A3 Academics 7 7 7 3 1 3
A4 Coach 7 7 5 2 3 2 3 2
A5 Facilities 6 6 1 5 1 5
A6 Friend
on the team		 4 4 4 3 1
A7 School
Size		 4 4 3 1 2 2
A8 Open Spot 3 3 3 2 1
Consequences
C1 Feel Comfort 15 16 8 1 2 5
C2 Financial Comfort 14 14 4 10
C3 Adventure 12 12 12
C4 Get a Good Job 9 9 3 1 5
C5 Can Improve 8 10 10
C6 Friend & Family 7 8 2 5 1
C7 Feel
Valued		 5 5 4 1
C8 Playing
Time		 3 3 2 1
Values
V1 Fun
& Enjoyment		 20 27
V2 Achievement 14 21
V3 Security 13 22
V4 Belonging 5 7

As information from the implication matrix was transferred into the HVM, the researchers selected a cutoff level of two. A cutoff level establishes how frequently a connection had to be made to be depicted in the HVM. Thus, only connections made two or more times are illustrated with a line. Eliminating connections made only one time reducing clutter in the HVM. To assist the reader in interpreting the HVM, an illustrative example is presented (Figure 1). The complete HVM follows (Figure 2). Consistent with the literature (Klenosky, Templin, & Troutman, 2001), values are presented at the top of the map to represent their abstract nature in college selection (they appear within triangles and are spelled with all capital letters). Consequences are represented across the middle (within circles and beginning with a capital letter), and attributes appear at the bottom (within rectangles and all lower case letters) to reflect that they were merely the beginning point in each chain and are the most superficial level of information gathered. Further, the lines between attributes, consequences, and values represent the frequency of the connection between these concepts (more frequent associations depicted with thicker lines). The size of each shape also reflects the number of participants mentioning it, with more frequently mentioned concepts dominating more space. Finally, the first number in each shape reflects the number of participants that mentioned the concept, while the number in parenthesis is the number of times the concept was mentioned in total, reflecting that some concepts would be mentioned multiple times by a single participant.

Figure 1

Figure 1. An illustrative example of an HVM section

Figure 2

Figure 2. Hierarchical Value Map for female student athletes’ college selection

Discussion

 

Analysis of the HVM revealed several noteworthy findings. First, location was a primary attribute for the selection of this university over other universities the athletes considered as they made a final decision. In fact, 39% of all the chains created in this study began with the attribute of location. While it might not be surprising that a university in the state of Florida is selected for its location, this fact underscores the importance of a means-end analysis. While a college selection survey would also reveal that location was important, it would not discover the true reason for the importance of this attribute. The means-end analysis demonstrated that the attribute of location was important for several different reasons. Of the 30 chains beginning with location, 12 went to the consequence of adventure and then continued on to the value of fun and enjoyment. Other participants indicated that location was important because it kept them close to friends and family, which had a strong connection to the value of security. Others expressed that they simply are comfortable here, which largely connected with fun and enjoyment. Finally, some participants (in outdoor sports) noted that the weather in Florida would allow them to improve their sport performance (largely due to an extended season), which supported the value of achievement.

The different values that underpinned the importance of location supported the belief that college selection is a complicated process and that a single attribute of a campus can be important to prospective student athletes for a wide variety of reasons. This fact should be particularly interesting to coaches who spend considerable time and effort in the recruitment process and could misinterpret a prospects’ motivation for selecting a particular university. For example, coaches might feel confident that a student athlete selected a college because of location and may even presume to know that it is related to a consequence, such as improving sport performance, whereas in the mind of the student athlete, lying on the beach might be the true motivator because she is more driven by her value of fun and enjoyment than by the value of achievement.

Second, the attribute of receiving an athletic scholarship was also frequently mentioned. It was important to 16 of the 25 participants (64%). Predominantly it led to the consequence of financial comfort, which, in turn led to the value of security. For a few participants, however, the consequence of financial comfort led to the value of achievement, which reflected their belief that financial comfort was essentially earned through their years of dedication to sport participation. Comments made during the interviews suggested that the participants viewed the scholarship as a literal indication that they had achieved within their sport and that their achievement became measurable and worthwhile through the scholarship offer. Participants reported being offered scholarship packages of widely varying values and thus scholarship became an important attribute in differentiating between schools. The Klenosky, Templin and Troutman (2001) study did not reveal scholarship as an important attribute among the Division I football players because each participant in the sample reported being recruited by over 20 schools and thus scholarship was likely a non-issue in differentiating between schools.

Third, the attributes of the coach and academics were mentioned by surprisingly few participants. These attributes were seldom used by participants to differentiate their school from others at the time they made their final selection. Still, it is interesting to see that these attributes trailed location and scholarship by a wide margin. For the seven participants who mentioned academics, all of them linked it to the consequence of getting a good job, as opposed to more altruistic notions such as gaining knowledge or growing as a person.

Fourth, the consequence of feeling comfort was frequently mentioned and stemmed from a variety of attributes. School size, location, a friend on the team, and the coach were all attributes that seemed to assure the participants that this school would be a good fit for them and provide a place in which they would feel comfort. This information is valuable for coaches who actively recruit prospects. It is possible that a key to securing recruits is in convincing them that the attributes of the college, team, and campus will help the prospect feel comfort.

Fifth, the value of fun and enjoyment underpinned the college selection for many participants (it was mentioned by 20 of the 25 participants (80%), and several participants had multiple chains end with this value). However, the source of fun and enjoyment was extremely varied. At the time the college selection was made, participants believed that playing time, adventure (from location), proximity to friends and family, a comfortable atmosphere, and opportunity to get a good job all led to the possibility of fulfilling the value of fun and enjoyment.

This study contributes to the college selection literature and furthered the work of Klenosky, Templin, and Troutman (2001) to utilize means-end theory to determine the values that student athletes rely on in this process. However, there were limits to the study. Most notably, it only represented student athletes from one university and results do not generalize to female student athletes overall. Different results could occur among student athletes at other schools based on such traits as school size, region of the country, and NCAA division.

Conclusion

 

College selection is a complicated and difficult process for student athletes, which is often made even more confusing by the recruitment process. While traditionally researchers have sought to understand college selection by drawing from sizable data sets gathered via surveys, that method fails to explore fully the complexity of any given attribute (such as location). By applying means-end theory researchers can probe further and determine the values on which prospects are basing their selection. Further, a general understanding of means-end theory could be important for coaches to improve the process of attracting prospects in an increasingly competitive college sports climate. It also can assist coaches in understanding what is important to the student athletes once they matriculate to campus.

For the participants in this study, security, achievement, belonging, and fun and enjoyment were the guiding values for college selection. Future research should extend the use of means-end analysis to student athletes in other contexts, for example by sport, NCAA division, and region of the country.

References

 

Bukowski, B. J. (1995). Influences on student college choice for minority and non minority athletes at a Division III institution (Doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI). Dissertation Abstracts International, 56(7), 126.

Cook, T. (1994). Factors female freshmen student-athletes use in deciding between a NJCAA college and a NAIA college. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS.

Doyle, C. A. & Gaeth, G. J. (1990). Assessing the institutional choice process of student athletes. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 61(1), 85-92.

Finley, P. S. (2005). An analysis of team Web site content and college choice factors of NCAA Division III cross country runners (Doctoral dissertation, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO). Dissertation Abstracts International, 66(04), 1291.

Forseth, E. (1987). Factors influencing student-athletes’ college choice at evangelical, church-supported NAIA institutions in Ohio (Doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State Univesity, Columbus, OH). Dissertation Abstracts International, 48(01), 172.

Gutman, J. (1982). A means-end chain model based on consumer categorization processes. Journal of Marketing, 46(2), 60-72.

Johnson, E. A. (1972). Football players’ selection of a university. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT.

Kankey, K., & Quarterman J. (2007). Factors influencing the university choice of NCAA Division I softball players. The SMART Journal, 3(2), 35-49.

Klenosky, D. B., Templin, T. J. & Troutman, J. A. (2001). Recruiting student athletes: A means-end investigation of school-choice decision making. Journal of Sport Management, 15, 95-106.

Konnert, W., & Geise, R. (1987). College choice factors of male athletics at private NCAA Division III institutions. College and University, 63(1), 33-44.

Mathes, S., & Gurney, G. (1985). Factors in student-athletes’ choice of colleges. Journal of College Student Personnel, 26(4), 327-333.

Reynaud, C. (1998). Factors influencing prospective female volleyball student-athletes’ selection of an NCAA Division I university: Towards a more informed recruitment process (Doctoral dissertation, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL). Dissertation Abstracts International, 59(02), 445.

Reynolds, T. J., & Gutman, J. (1988). Laddering theory, method, analysis and interpretation. Journal of Advertising Research, 28(1), 11-31.

Slabik, S. L. (1995). Influences on college choice of student-athletes at National Collegiate Athletic Association Division III institutions. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA.

Ulferts, L. (1992). Factors influencing recruitment of collegiate basketball players in institutions of higher education in the upper Midwest (Doctoral dissertation, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND). Dissertation Abstracts International, 54(03), 770.

Authors Note:
Correspondence for this article should go to Peter Finley, H. Wayne Huizenga School of Business and Entrepreneurship, 3301 College Avenue, Fort Lauderdale-Davie, Florida 33314, (954) 262-8115, pfinley@huizenga.nova.edu.

2016-10-20T10:36:52-05:00April 2nd, 2008|Sports Coaching, Sports Exercise Science, Women and Sports|Comments Off on An application of means-end theory to analyze the college selection process of female athletes at an NCAA division II university
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Nutrition Knowledge and Attitudes of College Athletes

Submitted by: Debra Dunn, R.N., B.S.N., M.S., C.N.O.R., Lori W. Turner, Ph.D., R.D. & George Denny, Ph.D.

Abstract:

Research indicates that the nutritional knowledge of athletes is minimal. Dietary behaviors may hinder health status and athletic performance. The purpose of this study was to compare nutrition knowledge and attitudes of college athletes at a Southern university (N=190). Male and female athletes were surveyed from all sports.  The study examined knowledge of current dietary recommendations, sources of nutrients, healthy food choices, and the relationship between diet and disease processes.  Significant differences in overall knowledge were noted between athletes’ collegiate sports and genders. The majority of athletes at this university had healthy attitudes about eating behaviors, but low knowledge scores.

A problem facing America’s college youth today is the lack of available healthy fast foods or easily prepared foods. College students have little time and space when it comes to meal preparation within the confines of dorms, apartments, or shared housing.  An additional concern is the knowledge needed to determine which food items to select.  Current research indicates that as the athletes’ knowledge increases, nutritional quality of food choices improves (Kunkel, Bell, & Luccia, 2001).

Nutritional Education and Training (NET) programs are taught to children in most public schools (Sizer & Whitney, 2000), yet few college-age students understand even the basic concepts of nutrition by the time they reach a university setting (Cho & Fryer, 1974; Grandjean, Hursh, Manjure, & Hanley, 1981).

Student athletes with higher nutritional knowledge may obtain information to help increase performances and or maintain healthy or competitive weights (Barr, 1987).  However, athletes participating in certain athletic sports have more problems obtaining basic nutrient needs (Beals & Manore, 1998) while attempting to attain or maintain a weight that allows them  to stay competitive.

Some nutritional information obtained by athletes may be unreliable (Barr et al., 1997), contributing to the problem of athletes making poor dietary choices (Evans, Sawyer-Morse, & Betsinger, 2000). The purpose of this study was to examine nutrition knowledge and attitudes in a sample of athletes in a university setting.

Methods:

Data Collection Instruments

Nutritional knowledge was assessed using the Nutrition and Knowledge Questionnaire developed by Parameter and Wardle (2000). Permission for use of the questionnaire was obtained. The questionnaire included four sections covering (a) experts’ recommendations regarding increasing and decreasing intake of different food groups, (b) nutrient knowledge,  (c) food choices (which ask people to choose between different options, e.g., to pick a healthy snack which is low in fat and high in fiber), and (d) the relationships between diet and disease.  This last section addresses beliefs about which foods can cause particular diseases as well as knowledge of diseases associated with eating too much or too little of various foods.

Nutrition attitudes were measured using the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT 26) developed by Garner and Garfinkel (1979).  Access to the questionnaire was obtained online with permission of the authors.  The Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26) is probably the most widely used standardized measure of symptoms and concerns characteristic of eating disorders (Garner, Olmstead, Bohr, & Garfinkel, 1982).  Early identification of eating disorders is obtained by using the questionnaire as a screening tool to allow early treatment and prevention of long-term physical and psychological complications.

The demographic questions measured consisted of age, ethnic origin, year in school, and collegiate sport.  Questions were asked about the student athletes’ frequency of working out, height, weight, supplement use, and previous nutrition classes.

Participants

After obtaining approval from the institution’s review board, participants were recruited from each of the athletic departments, including football, volleyball, basketball, softball, gymnastics, golf, tennis, swimming, cross-country/track and field, and soccer. One hundred and ninety participants aged 18-24 were surveyed.  Coaches were initially informed of the study by e-mail.  After the initial introduction by e-mail, another e-mail was sent to obtain consent from the coaches.

Procedure

All collegiate athletes were asked to voluntarily complete the knowledge and attitude survey. Surveys were disseminated before or after weight training sessions or before or after workouts. Each athlete was given the nine-page questionnaire to complete using as much time as necessary to answer all the questions.  All athletes completed all sections of the study, with the exception of the gymnastic team. Coaches of the gymnastics team opted not to allow their athletes to complete the attitudes section of the survey because some of the gymnastic athletes were involved in counseling for problematic eating behaviors.  The coaches were concerned that athletes would be put under more duress if challenged by a questionnaire assessing current nutritional habits.

Data Analyses

Statistical analyses were conducted using programs available in SPSS, version 11.0.  Descriptive statistics were used to determine means and percentages of groups.   Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test for group mean differences in knowledge/attitudes and for relationships between knowledge scores and age, year in school, and collegiate sport.  Gender differences in knowledge and attitudes were analyzed using an independent samples t test.

Results:

The mean age of female athletes was 19 years of age and the majority of respondents were white. The demographic characteristics are shown in Table 1.

Knowledge and Attitudes in Nutrition Among College Athletes

The nutritional knowledge score had a mean of 51.49% (SD 13.57%).  Of the maximum 11 points for the dietary recommendations section, the mean score was 6.52 (SD 2.02). Seventy-five percent of the respondents were aware of the recommendations to decrease fat, sugar, and salt intake, and 76.1% agreed that it was healthy to increase fiber, fruit, and vegetable intake. Only 32% of the surveyed population responded correctly to the number of fruits and vegetables recommended daily (collectively- five to six servings). Forty-five percent of the athletes stated that experts recommended that we needed four servings or less of fruits and vegetables or they were unsure. However, more than 66% of the students were aware of the recommendation to reduce saturated fat.  When asked about carbohydrate and meat recommendations, 56% agreed that experts say we should eat the same amount of meat as Americans are currently consuming, and 53% of the respondents replied that experts recommend that carbohydrate intake should be less.

  1. Of a possible 67 points for the section on food groups, the mean score was 36.44 (SD 10.02 ). When asked to categorize various foods as either high or low in sugar, fat, starch, salt, protein, fiber, or saturated fats, a slight percentage were aware and no one scored higher than a 56.

 

Of a maximum of 6 points on the everyday food selections section, the mean score was 2.98 (SD 1.25).  When athletes were asked to pick a low fat, high fiber snack, only 37% chose the correct answer (raisins). The most common incorrect response submitted was “nutragrain bar” (39%).  Sixty-eight percent of the athletes agreed that the healthiest pasta-sauce combination should be a large amount of pasta with a small amount of sauce versus the reverse (large amount of sauce with small amount of pasta).  When asked to choose the best choice for low fat, high fiber meal, 42% of the athletes correctly chose beans and rice.  Twenty-eight percent chose grilled chicken and another 22% chose whole wheat with cheese.

In the diet and disease relationships section, athletes were asked if they were aware of links between eating more or less of a particular food and major health problems associated with each. The mean score was 5.57 (SD 2.99) out of a possible 17 points. The highest proportions of people (65%) were aware of a relationship between high fat intake and disease. Of the people who were aware of the fat-disease link, 58% also knew about the link to heart disease and obesity.  Students therefore agreed that fat intake be decreased to reduce risk of heart disease.

Almost 70% of the athletes agreed that eating less salt would help decrease the risk for heart disease.  Students were evenly divided (38% Yes; 38% No; 22% Unsure) as to whether eating less preservatives would decrease the risk for heart disease, indicating that more information should be provided for about food preservatives.

Only 35% were aware of a link between low intake of fruits and vegetables and health problems. Sixty-one percent of the athletes stated that consumption of more fruits and vegetables and fiber intake were methods to reducing the risk for development of cancer.

Slightly over one-third of the athletes (35%) knew of health risks associated with low fiber intake. The majority was unaware of a specific risk with cancer or any specific health problems associated with low fiber intake.

When asked to discuss diseases or health problems related to sugar, only one athlete out of 190 gave the correct response. The correct answer, teeth (in diseases of the teeth), was the most missed question.  This information indicates that most students, though aware, may not stop to think of the association between sugar and the health of their teeth.  Most students (54%) responded with the answer of diabetes which is also related to sugar intake although much later in life.

A t test between male (n = 92) and female (n = 97) athletes found significant differences in nutritional knowledge (P < .001).  Female athletes scored slightly higher than the males on overall nutritional knowledge, as well as on each individual section of recommendations, food groups, choices, and diseases.

Eating attitudes were assessed using the 26-item Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26).  Mean scores for the 104 participants (gymnasts were excluded from this part of the survey) were 6.04 (SD = 5.96), with only 5.8% demonstrating a potential for having or acquiring an eating disorder (scores > 20).

Gender differences noted in the EAT-26 were not significant (equal variances assumed).  Mean scores were just slightly lower for males (M = 5.41; SD = 5.85) than for females (M = 6.73; SD = 6.03).  There were no significant differences between male and female athletes on the attitude sections.

Discussion:

The purpose of this study was to compare nutrition knowledge and attitudes of college athletes at a southern university. The results of this survey reveal a lack of nutritional knowledge among university athletes.  As previous research has indicated (Barr, 1987; Jacobson, Sobonyna & Ransone, 2001), college athletes are lacking in nutritional knowledge.

Previous research in athletic programs shows that the time spent in the athletic program may improve nutritional awareness and positively influence eating behaviors (Clark, 1999).  Athletes’ overall knowledge in the current study was fair. Just over half of the responses were answered correctly. Athletes’ knowledge about dietary recommendations was superior to their knowledge regarding other topics.  Well over half of the athletes were generally aware that they should be eating more or less of particular types of foods.  One topic area that needs improvement is regarding carbohydrate needs; most athletes incorrectly believed that carbohydrates should be decreased in the diet.

Athletes in the current study displayed impressive knowledge regarding fat content of specific foods.  However, they lacked knowledge about types of fats. They were aware that whole grains contain more vitamins and minerals than do other grains.  Knowledge about diet and disease relationships was poor.  The most common known relationship was between heart disease and high fat foods.

Athletes had problems translating their knowledge into food choices.  Only 50% percent of the survey questions regarding food choices were answered correctly.  Marketing may be a contributing factor to the confusion of healthy food choices versus non-healthy food choices (Clark, 1999).

The eating attitudes of athletes were positive. Most athletes at this university were not at risk for eating disorders.  However, scores might been different if the gymnasts participated in the study.

Recommendations:

Sports nutrition has grown over the past decade, linking how an athlete eats with how they perform during practice or competitive events (Clark, 1999).  For this reason and given the results of this study, it would be beneficial to hire a nutritionist as part of the staff.

Coaches can help to enhance the performances of their athletes by promoting good nutrition (Turner & Bass, 2001; Witta, Stombaugh, & Buch, 1995); however, they need to have the nutritional knowledge in order to encourage healthy food choices (Corley, Demarest-Litchford, & Bazzarre, 1990; Wolf, Wirth, & Lohman, 1979). Providing athletes with a person knowledgeable in current dietary recommendations and aware of current eating disorders can perhaps prevent poor athletic performances and the potential problems with eating behaviors.

Nutritional knowledge is related to eating behavior (Burke, Cox, Cummings & Desbrow, 2001; Witta et al., 1995).  Research shows that athletes who receive nutrition education have significantly higher knowledge and attitude scores, and as their knowledge increases, they are more prone to eat or avoid certain foods (Werblow, Fox, & Henneman, 1978).

Lifetime consequences from poor food choices may affect bone health and reproductive health (Turner & Bass, 2001).  Positive attitudes toward nutrition are linked with accurate nutrition knowledge (Witta et al., 1995).  It is necessary to inform college athletes about even the basic dietary concepts.

It is practical to consider that collegiate athletes are knowledgeable about the demands of their individual sports and the nutrients vital to maintain a healthy and competitive state.  However, research in the past tells us different. Both athletes and non-athletes need guidance in selecting nutrient-dense foods (Tilgner & Schiller, 1989) necessary to sustain energy for activities of daily life or endurance sports. More research is needed regarding the effects of nutrition interventions on knowledge, attitudes, and food behavior.

References:

Barr, S. I. (1986). Nutrition knowledge and selected nutritional practices of female recreational athletes. Journal of Nutrition Education, 18, 167.

Barr, S. I. (1987).  Nutrition knowledge of female varsity athletes and university    students.  Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 87, 1660-1664.

Barr, S. I., Heaney, R. P., Scheider, P., Reiners, C., Klesges, R. C., Ward, K. D., et al. (1997). Changes in bone mineral density in male athletes. Journal of the American Medical Association, 277(1), 22.

Beals, K. A., & Manore, M. M. (1998). Nutritional status of female athletes with subclinical eating disorders.  Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 98, 419-425.

Burke, L.M., Cox, G.R., Cummings, N.K. & Desbrow, B. (2001). Guidelines for daily carbohydrate intake: Do athletes achieve them? Sports Medicine, 31, 267-299.

Cho, M., & Fryer, B.A. (1974). Nutritional knowledge of collegiate physical education majors. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 65, 30.

Clark, K. (1999). Sports nutrition counseling: Documentation of performance. Clinical Nutrition, 14(2), 34.

Corely, G., Demarest-Litchford, M., & Bazzarre, T. (1990). Nutrition knowledge and dietary practices of college coaches. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 90, 705-709.

Evans, A. E., Sawyer-Morse, M. K., & Betsinger, A. (2000). Fruit and vegetable consumption among Mexican-American college students, Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 100, 1399-1402.

Garner, D. M., & Garfinkel, P. E. (1979). The Eating Attitudes Test: An index of the symptoms of anorexia nervosa. Psychological Medicine, 9, 273-279.

Garner, D. M., Olmstead, M. P., Bohr, Y., & Garfinkel, P. E. (1982). The Eating Attitudes Test: Psychometric features and clinical correlates. Psychological Medicine, 12, 871-878.

Grandjean, A., Hursh, L. M., Majure, W. C., & Hanley, D. F. (1981). Nutrition knowledge and practices of college athletes. Medical Science Sports Exercise, 13, 82.

Jacobson, B. H., Sobonya, C., & Ransone, J. (2001). Nutrition practices and knowledge of collage varsity athletes: A follow-up. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 15, 63-68.

Kunkel, M., Bell, L. B., & Luccia, H. D. (2001). Peer nutrition education program to improve nutrition knowledge of female collegiate athletes. Journal of Nutrition Education, 33(2), 114-115.

Parameter, K., & Wardle, J. (2000). Evaluation and design of nutritional knowledge measures. Journal of Nutrition Education, 32(5), 269-277.

Sizer, F. & Whitney, E. (2000). Child, teen, and older adult. In Wadsworth (8th Ed.), Nutrition Concepts and Controversies (pp. 469-545). Belmont, CA: Wadworth/Thompson Learning.

Tilgner, S., & Schiller, M. R. (1989). Dietary intakes of female collegiate athletes: The need for nutrition and education. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 89, 967.
Turner, L. W., & Bass, M. A. (2001). Osteoporosis knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors of female collegiate athletes. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 11(4), 482.

Werblow, J. A., Fox, H. M., & Henneman, A. (1978). Nutritional knowledge, attitudes, and food patterns of women athletes. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 78, 242-245.

Witta, B., Stombaugh, I., & Buch, J. (1995). Nutrition knowledge and eating practices of young female athletes. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 66(3), 36.

Wolf, E. M. B., Wirth, J. C., & Lohman, T. G. (1979). Nutritional practices of coaches in the Big Ten. The Physician and Sportsmedicine, 7, 112.

2020-05-08T11:36:44-05:00March 14th, 2008|Sports Exercise Science, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off on Nutrition Knowledge and Attitudes of College Athletes
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A Pathfinder of Reference Sources for the Sport of Rowing

Submitted by: Dr. William F. Meehan III & Dr. Steven R. Murray

Abstract:

Rowing has a long, storied history. It is a popular competitive and recreational sport around the world. Whether on the water, in a boat, or on a rowing machine in a fitness center, rowing has long been championed by physicians and fitness experts as an excellent means of developing physical conditioning. Many sport scholars and fitness experts are knowledgeable about the physiological benefits of rowing and about how to design effective exercise programs, but they lack general historical knowledge about the sport. The purpose of this paper is to provide a useful pathfinder for resources on rowing, with an aim toward providing greater awareness of the sport.


Introduction:

The origins of rowing can be traced to ancient Egypt, where hieroglyphics found in tomb paintings depict men rowing on the Nile. The ancient Greeks and Romans, too, participated in various boating activities, yet their participation was more utilitarian than sporting. Competitive rowing, or crew, is the oldest form of organized collegiate athletic competition in the world, dating to the 19th century. In England, crews from the colleges of the University of Oxford began racing in 1815, while the University of Cambridge’s colleges started fielding teams in 1827. The famed Oxford-Cambridge boat race, which would attract several hundred thousands of spectators, was inaugurated in 1829, and is still held annually. Rowing was introduced to American universities in 1852, when the crews of Harvard and Yale competed in the first organized American intercollegiate athletic contest. College and professional rowing regattas were the most popular spectator sporting events in late nineteenth century America. Rowing maintains a historic position in the sporting world.

Common notions about rowing are that it is an intellectual sport, and its participants come primarily from the gentry. The former is most definitely true, but that latter is, without doubt, a dated stereotype. Rowing has grown in its popularity. Many colleges now field teams for men and women and numerous cities have well-established rowing clubs. The sport has had the imprimatur of the modern Olympics for over a century. With the advent of wind-braked rowing ergometers, the sport has gone indoors. Today, annual national and world championships for rowing are held indoors. The history of rowing is not just one of competitive sport, however, as it has long been championed by physicians and fitness experts as an excellent means of developing physical conditioning. Furthermore, many schools and colleges across America have purchased indoor rowing machines for their fitness centers and physical education courses.

This pathfinder describes some of the abundant material devoted to rowing, with an aim toward providing a greater awareness of the sport. The 43 sources, which include books and Web sources arranged alphabetically in eight categories, are annotated. Full citations for books are provided. Books that are not available in a library can be acquired through interlibrary loan services. Many of the books can be obtained in the online used book market. Fiction and reference works, such as sports dictionaries and encyclopedias, are not included.

Art and Photographic Sources:

Like most sports, rowing is a visual spectacle depicted in art and captured in photographs. Muscular rowers moving oared boats across water can be inspiring.

Cooper, Helen A. (1996). Thomas Eakins: The Rowing Pictures. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Art Gallery.
A primer on the rowing art of America’s preeminent nineteenth-century painter.

Ivry, Benjamin. (1988). Regatta: A Celebration of Oarsmanship. New York: Simon and Schuster.
An enjoyable salute to the splendor of rowing, with lively writing and wonderful color photography. Contains a chapter about coxswains.

Weil, Thomas E. (2005). Beauty and the Boats: Art & Artistry in Early British Rowing. Illustrated from the Thomas E. Weil Collection. Henley-on-Thames: River and Rowing Museum.
The exhibition catalogue of Weil’s collection of rowing memorabilia, art, and literature–perhaps the world’s finest–that was displayed at the River and Rowing Museum. Descriptions are informal but enlightening, and the color photographs of every item displayed are enriching.


Bibliography:

One bibliography is devoted to rowing, and it is a landmark scholarly achievement.

Brittain, Frederick. (1938). Oar, Scull and Rudder. London: Humphrey Milford, Oxford University Press. Rpt. in Herrick, Robert F. Red Top: Reminisces of Harvard Rowing. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948. pp. 183-248.
Nearly 1,000 sources, many of them annotated, in the only bibliography of rowing literature, compiled by a scholar who authored three books on the sport.


Biographical Sources:

These sources offer insights not only into the varied lives of athletes and coaches, but into the enduring mysteries of rowing. Rowers are passionate about their sport, which offers little glory and less fame, and narratives about tolerating the physical demands and finding the rhythm of moving a boat over water are absorbing.

Boyne, Daniel J. (2000). The Red Rose Crew: A True Story of Women, Winning, and the Water. New York: Hyperion. Reissued in 2005, with a foreword by David Halberstam.
A compelling portrayal of the pioneering crew’s bid for the 1975 World Championships, led by the phenomenal oarswoman Carie Graves and Harvard’s men’s coach Harry Parker.

Halberstam, David. (1986). The Amateurs. New York: Penguin Books.
An exceptional look into the “demonic passion” of elite single scullers and the quest for one spot on the 1984 U.S. Olympic rowing team. The finest book on rowing.

Hall, Sara. (2002). Drawn to the Rhythm: A Passionate Life Reclaimed. New York: W.W. Norton and Company.
The winning account of a determined woman’s discovery of competitive sculling and her swift climb to a world championship.

Kiesling, Stephen. (1982). The Shell Game: Reflections on Rowing and the Pursuit of Excellence. New York: Morrow.
Originally the author’s senior thesis in philosophy, this is the primary book about rowing at Yale.

Lewis, Brad Alan. (1990). Assault on Lake Casitas. Philadelphia: Broad Street Books. Reissued in 2002 by Shark Press & JL Designs, Inc.
An engrossing narrative by an iconic figure in American rowing whose uncommon tenacity led him and his partner to a gold medal in the 1984 Olympic double sculls.

Look, Margaret K. (1989). Courtney: Master Oarsman–Champion Coach. Interlaken, N.Y.: Empire State Books.
This enjoyable story about the early years of a tremendous American rower and legendary Cornell coach is told by a seasoned journalist who appreciates the sport.

Newell, Gordon R. (1987). Ready All! George Y. Pocock and Crew Racing. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
Primarily about fabled boat builder George Pocock, the book also chronicles the rise of the University of Washington crew as a powerhouse in the first half of the twentieth century.

Pinsent, Matthew. (2004). Two Million Strokes a Minute: A Lifetime in a Race. London: Ebury Press.
His country’s most accomplished rower, Pinsent’s notable journey begins as a novice at England’s foremost prep school and ends with the ultimate honor for remarkable achievement in rowing—knighting by the Queen.

Strauss, Barry. (1999). Rowing Against the Current: On Learning to Scull at Forty. New York: Simon and Schuster.
The engaging narrative of a professor at mid-life who was drawn initially to the sport’s history but finds personal satisfaction and athletic fulfillment as a sculler. Contains suggested readings.


Coaching or Instruction Sources:

These are how-to-row and how-to-get-better-at-rowing sources that describe a range of techniques and philosophies. Helpful primers to getting started and guidebooks to enhanced performance, they contain advice about training and racing on the water and on the ergometer.

Bourne, Gilbert C. (1987). A Textbook of Oarsmanship: A Classic of Rowing Technical Literature. Toronto: Sport Books.
The classic text on rowing technique by an anatomist whose wit and literary ability contribute to its lasting popularity.

Fairbairn, Steve. (1990). Steve Fairbairn on Rowing. London: The Kingswood Press. Originally published in 1951.
One of British rowing’s most famous coaches, Fairbairn wrote numerous “chats” for his crews in the early 1900s. Fascinating statements about motivation, racing, and training were compiled in this book. It will not disappoint.

Kiesling, Stephen. (1990). The Complete Recreational Rower & Racer. New York: Crown.
For the novice rower at any level, the most practical induction to the sport by an accomplished rower and writer. Contains a weekly training schedule, ergometer pace chart, historical time line, and bibliography.

Lehmann, R. C. (1908). The Complete Oarsman. London: Methuen & Co.
An earnest and lengthy look at early nineteenth-century British club, college, and professional daily rowing routines that, without a hint of humor, encourages a pint of beer at lunch and endorses champagne as the antidote for a slump in performance.

Nolte, Volker. (ed.). (2004). Rowing Faster. Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics.
A readable compilation of theories and experiences about rigging, training, racing, nutrition, and more by authorities around the world. Contains a chapter for coxswains.

Paduda, Joe. (1992). The Art of Sculling. Camden, Me.: International Marine Pub.
An introduction by an experienced coach whose advice about technique, drills, and workouts is clear and instructive. Contains a glossary of terms.


Databases:

Databases are excellent resources for locating information, from research studies to book reviews to scholarly essays to popular articles. Access to a database usually requires an institutional subscription.

SPORTDiscus
This subject database offers a comprehensive bibliographic coverage of sports and fitness, including rowing, as well as related disciplines, such as sport management. It contains over nearly 700,000 records dating to 1800, including journal and monograph references as well as theses and dissertations, books, book chapters, conference proceedings, and magazine articles.


Historical Sources:

Rowing is rich with tradition, and portrayals of its customs on and off the water help explain the sport’s lasting appeal as a spectator sport.

Burnell, Richard. (1989). Henley Royal Regatta: A Celebration of 150 Years. London: William Heinemann.
The official account of the renowned British regatta and grand social event that dates to 1839 by a notable oarsman turned rowing correspondent and author.

Cleaver, Hylton. (1957). A History of Rowing. London: Herbert Jenkins.
An authoritative treatment of rowing at every phase in its development, from a British perspective.

Dodd, Christopher. (1983). The Oxford & Cambridge Boat Race. London: Stanley Paul.
A rowing reporter who is now considered the sport’s preeminent historian, Dodd selects what he believes the best stories about the historic race, begun in 1829, and writes an informal account that edifies.

—. (1992). The Story of World Rowing. London: Stanley Paul.
The first complete look at the evolution of rowing as a sport and a recreational activity. Contains a bibliography of 140 items.

Herrick, Robert F. (comp.). (1948). Red Top: Reminisces of Harvard Rowing. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
A studious look at Harvard rowing, with essays by knowledgeable writers. Includes Britain’s bibliography.

Kelley, Robert F. (1932). American Rowing: Its Background and Traditions. New York: Putnam’s.
The principal account of the first 80 years of club, college, and professional rowing in the U.S., by The New York Times’ rowing reporter.

Mendenhall, Thomas C. (1980). A Short History of American Rowing. Boston: Charles River Books.
A complete listing of winning crews in essential races from 1852, plus synopses of the stages of American rowing, by a Yale historian known for his understanding of the sport. Contains a glossary of terms.

—. (1993). The Harvard Yale Boat Race, 1852-1924. Mystic, Conn.: Mystic Seaport Museum.
A scholarly treatment of the oldest intercollegiate athletic event in the U.S. that examines the growth of rowing at the two schools and explores academic developments and campus life, while considering the administrators who contributed to the sport’s rise. Contains a glossary of terms and bibliography.

Taylor, Bradley F. (2005). Wisconsin Where They Row: A History of Varsity Rowing at the University of Wisconsin. Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press.
Rowing is the oldest intercollegiate sport in Wisconsin, so this carefully researched book covers a great deal of significant history, including the rise of women’s participation in the post-Title IX era.

Web Documents:

Among the web resources other than websites related to rowing, the following documents stand out. Selected for their thorough research and fine writing, they are authored by two rowing history authorities who approach their work with a scholar’s disposition and a journalist’s style to create entertaining and informative resources.

“The Wild and Crazy Professionals,” by Bill Miller www.rowinghistory.net/professionals.htm
Miller critiques rowing as a sport for gentlemen who competed honorably but fervently under rules of polite sportsmanship, likening the sport’s popular figures to the 1919 Chicago Black Sox.

“The Great International Boat Race,” by Bill Miller
http://www.rowinghistory.net/1869.htm
Miller details the 1869 Harvard-Oxford race, placing the event into its proper historical context and arguing that it led to increased interest in rowing at colleges and among amateurs, thereby bringing an end to professional rowing.

“A Brief Time-Line of Rowing History,” by Thomas E. Weil.
www.rowinghistory.net/Time%20Line/Time%20Line.htm
Weil highlights key dates in the development of rowing as the first modern sport in this chronology that covers ancient times to the present.

“The Dangerously Neglected Legacy of Rowing,” by Thomas E. Weil. www.rowinghistory.net/neglected.htm
Weil sincerely questions the rowing community’s general under-appreciation for the sport’s literature, art, memorabilia, and history, then argues persuasively for a greater understanding of its legacy.

Websites:

Several sites on the World Wide Web are dedicated to rowing. These examples provide reliable information about the sport and, like most Internet sources, they provide links to related sites.

Concept2
http://www.concept2.com
Because the Concept2 rowing machine has become standard equipment in boathouses and fitness clubs, the company’s site serves as the primary source for indoor rowing, from workouts and training to racing schedules.

Friends of Rowing History
http://www.rowinghistory.net
Founded in 1992 with an emphasis on North American rowing, this organization’s interest is the preservation of the history of rowing and the celebration of the sport’s past. It features a bibliography and time-line, articles, memorabilia, and other materials of interest to the rowing historian.

George Y. Pocock Rowing Foundation
http://www.pocockrowing.org
The George Pocock Rowing Foundation, founded in 1984 and named for innovative shell-builder George Pocock, supports the development and growth of rowing for all ages and skill levels and provides for public and community rowing events, in addition to sponsorship of men and women training for the U.S. National Rowing Team.

Henley Royal Regatta
http://www.hrr.co.uk
Henley Regatta, first held in 1839, is the premiere rowing race for high schools, colleges, and clubs in the U.K. andU.S. Originally a one-afternoon event, the regatta now extends 5 days the first week of July, with qualifying races held the week prior due to its popularity.

National Rowing Foundation

Home New

The National Rowing Foundation supports athletes who pursue excellence in the sport with the primary goal of promoting U.S. participation in rowing competition around the world, promoting the preservation of rowing history, and managing the Rowing Hall of Fame. Provides a list of every rower who has competed for the U.S.

River and Rowing Museum
www.rrm.co.uk
The River and Rowing Museum is the leading cultural and educational institution devoted to rowing, with three galleries covering the sport, the river Thames, and the town of Henley. Over 15,000 items are displayed to celebrate events and anniversaries and to depict the sport’s history. A permanent walk-through exhibition of Kenneth Grahame’s classic rowing tale for children, The Wind in the Willows, was recently added.

row2k
http://www.row2k.com
Daily rowing news, racing calendar, results, features, and photos from races at the high school, collegiate, masters, and national levels in the U.S., UK, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada make this site the leading source of information about rowing at all levels.

Schuylkill Navy of Philadelphia

Home

Founded in 1858, the Schuylkill Navy of Philadelphia is the oldest amateur athletic governing body in the U.S. Today, it comprises the ten clubs of Boathouse Row and numerous high schools and college teams.

USRowing

Home

USRowing is the national governing body for the sport in the U.S. It selects, trains, and manages the American teams competing in international events, including the World Championships, Pan American Games, and Olympics. It also sponsors junior and master’s level national championships.

World Rowing
http://www.worldrowing.com/home/default.sps
International rowing events, results, news, and features are the thrust of the site, as are profiles of elite athletes and a photo gallery. Browsers can subscribe, free of charge, to the organization’s magazine and newsletter.

Familiarity with these sources will broaden and deepen an understanding of rowing in sports scholars, fitness experts, and physical educators.

2020-06-02T11:24:58-05:00March 14th, 2008|Sports Coaching, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Management|Comments Off on A Pathfinder of Reference Sources for the Sport of Rowing
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Book Review: Senda Berenson: The Unlikely Founder of Women’s Basketball

Reviewed by: Jeffrey Chamberlin

Senda Berenson: The Unlikely Founder of Women’s Basketball is author Ralph Melnick’s biographical account of Senda Berenson (1868-1954), considered by many to be the founder of women’s basketball. She pioneered gender-specific rules and emphasized skill development and team play. She transformed the sport of women’s basketball from a physical education class for female underclassmen at Smith College to a nationwide, standardized-women’s game with rules formally approved by the American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education and published by Spaulding’s Athletic Library.

Senda Berenson: The Unlikely Founder of Women’s Basketball is a “portrait” of Senda Berenson’s life. In sixteen chapters, the author describes Berenson’s modest upbringing as a sickly, young Jewish immigrant from Lithuania, her aspirations to be an artist, her revolutionary and practical applications towards women’s physical education, and her commitment to making exercise and games social and enjoyable. Berenson believed the new age of women dictated that women’s athletics could be used as catalysts for social change. She believed competition created moral bankruptcy. Berenson condemned personal glory, corporate profit, individualism, and the entrepreneurial spirit reflected in men’s athletics. In qualifying his portrait of Berenson, Ralph Melnick writes:

[T]his book is neither a history of an advancing feminist wave nor a history of early women’s basketball; these stories have been told elsewhere, as has the history of women’s physical education. Rather, it is a step back more than a century, even to those moments before the first ball was tossed at center court, in an attempt to create a portrait of the remarkable women who sent it upward.

Nothing summarizes her better words to her nephew shortly before her death, “Old age is creeping up on me…I suppose that at our age we resign ourselves to the fact that our energy gets weaker and weaker – although I cannot do it with resignation.”

Millions of females throughout the country are reaping the benefits of Berenson’s foresight and fortitude. Her contributions to basketball have solidified her place in the Basketball Hall of Fame.

This book is an ideal text for those interested in the history of women’s sport or in the life of a remarkable American figure.

Author: Ralph Melnick
Published in 2007 by University of Massachusetts Press
(221 pages, ISBN: 1-55849-568-1)

2016-10-12T14:53:53-05:00March 14th, 2008|Sports Coaching, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Management, Women and Sports|Comments Off on Book Review: Senda Berenson: The Unlikely Founder of Women’s Basketball
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