Sports Studies and Sports Psychology – Page 38

A Comparative Study of Governance of Professional Baseball Systems in Japan and Taiwan

Ping-Chao Lee, National Taichung University, Taiwan;　Yoshio Takahashi, University of Tsukuba, Japan; Chien-Yu Lin, National Chung Hsing University, Taiwan; Koh Sasaki, Nagoya University, Japan

Abstract

This paper has provided a basis to outline some key governance features of professional baseball systems both in Japan and Taiwan. It seeks to highlight and compare with the various forms of interactions between actors in these two systems. Associated with this, the paper undertakes a qualitative content analysis method with reviewing and explaining the dynamics in the interactions among three main actors, namely, state, owners of clubs, and players. Four principal conclusions are as follows: first, this case points to evidence that owners of clubs own dominant power while players’ voices are relatively weak; second, it demonstrates how these two states adopt different attitudes to intervene or non-intervene their domestic professional baseball industry in some respects; third, it identifies the most powerful actors in the two systems are Committee Mediation and Committee Board, which represent the extended power of clubs’ owners; finally, the article suggests that the outcomes of interactions between the above actors have shaped the two sporting contexts for managerial decisions, which have made a contribution to a development of their own operating mechanisms.

Key Words

Governance, Power, Japan, Taiwan, Professional Baseball

Introduction

Baseball, having gained assistance from the Americans, established its foundation in Japan and the future of the game in Asia, in 1903. Americans “were embraced easily in Asian societies where Japan played a crucial role in perpetuating and promoting baseball” (Reaves, 2002: 8). Most academics have agreed that the relationship of (professional) baseball development between Japan, Taiwan, and the USA is evident, and such a type of development has manifested a specific ‘chain of supply’ in the global sporting context (cf. Chiba, 2004; Lee & Lin, 2007; Reaves, 2002; Takahashi & Horne, 2004). This claim of such a tendency, related to the development of globalizing baseball, has reflected on a phenomenon in Chiba’s accounts that “the phenomenon of globalization is becoming increasingly important for the professional baseball leagues in the Pacific region and North America” (Chiba, 2004: 207). Today, players from the East Asian countries such as Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan are common and performing with increasing dominance in the professional baseball industry in the United States, especially after 2001. “[Professional] baseball across Asia seems to appear to be the same as the U.S. version and in many ways, the Great American Game has become the Great Japanese Game- at least across Asia” (Reaves, 2002: 2) in general, and East Asia in particular. The game of professional baseball, which deems an obvious link among them, has built bridges from their development, which has been shaped in various forms in terms of management although having the same American origin.

In 1945 Japanese governance was ended and Taiwan has been took over by Taiwan’s government ever since. Fifty years of dominance by Japanese culture has more or less permeated and influenced the development of Taiwanese baseball culture and civil society. Indeed, generations later, Japan’s influence on the game [baseball] remains significant until now…and “what is special about Taiwan baseball is that we followed the Japanese model” (Wilson, 1996: 73). Therefore, some curious issues around this sport have been raised. Within this context, this paper aims to understand the development of the Japanese and Taiwanese professional baseball systems by explaining/comparing such organizations and management under their specific structural contexts. The researchers thus approach their study informed by the above considerations to identify: Who are the most powerful groups of actors who have shaped the professional baseball systems? What strategic goals have they pursued, and what resources were available to these actors given the historical context? What are the principles which guide particular organizations? Whose interests have been served by the development of the professional baseball systems?

The term ‘governance’ has grown in usage in relation to arguments in political science, public policy, international relations, and other areas in recent years. Before, the concept of governance had almost been seen as synonymous with government and related simultaneously to terms of politics, policies, and polity of political systems. As a rising popularity and an increasing expansion of the governance discourse which depicts various applications and meanings are recognized, the booming adoption of governance theory has also been found both at national and international levels in the field of sport (cf. Forster, 2006；Henry, Amara, Liang, & Uchiumi, 2005; Henry & Lee, 2004; Hoye & Cuskelly, 2007; Hums & MacLean, 2004; Michie & Oughton, 2005; Thoma & Chalip, 2003). In this study, Henry and Lee’s (2004) threefold typology of sport governance concepts has adapted to seek to investigate and explain the development of Japanese and Taiwanese professional baseball systems. According to Henry and Lee (2004), these three key sport governance approaches are systemic governance, corporate governance, and political governance.

The main focus in this article is systemic governance, which is concerned with the competition, cooperation, and mutual adjustment between organizations in business and/or policy systems – academic and policy related interest in governance has grown with the increase in complexity of business and policy environments. Most such environments are characterized by the interaction of organizations and of groups working within and across organizations. Sport is no exception here. If we think about the role of media interests, major sponsors, players’ agents, the major clubs and their share holders in professional sport, we see an ever more complex field of activity. Indeed, in the contemporary setting, it is unlikely to think in terms of a national or international governing body as being the sole author of its own sport’s destiny. Various groups of stakeholders such as government officials, owners of clubs etc. are able to negotiate with others and to apply pressure to have their own interests met. Thus the old, hierarchical model of the government of sport, the top-down system, has given way to a complex web of interrelationships between stakeholders in which different groups exert power in different ways and in different contexts by drawing on alliances with other stakeholders. While thinking about the role of governments, owners, clubs, players, spectators, and the wider community in the system, the complexity of this field is evident. This complicated set of relationships is characterized by interactions of organizations and groups, which are working within and across organizations. Thus, we intend to restrict our comments to three such actors, owners of clubs, governments, and players.

Method

To investigate the nature of the strategic context and the explanations/actions of strategic actors, the authors employed qualitative content analysis of textual materials to document its claim to reflect experiences of the phenomena by reference to the collected data. The study, conducted over one year (2007-08) by the first two of the authors, draws on materials from analysis of data, including key government policy documents, academic papers, and media commentaries etc., both in Japan and Taiwan. A review of the literature provides accounts of the two professional baseball contexts since 1990 (the year which CPBL set up) to 2008. Gathering of data helped to map out a picture of the structural context of the two professional baseball systems. In this study, we reviewed 21 academic materials, 24 media articles and 5 government reports. As a result, our research was conducted by secondary data from the above three main documents. Eighty-three commentaries were identified to conduct this research. Table 1 below provides a summary of the key actors identified and the approaches adopted to obtaining data relating to their own commentaries.

Table 1
The Summary of Commentaries of Stakeholders and other Commentators

	Government Reports		Media Commentaries		Academic papers		Total
	Japan	Taiwan	Japan	Taiwan	Japan	Taiwan
Owners	1	3	4	8	6	8	30
Governments	3	4	4	7	4	6	28
Players	3	4	4	9	9	11	40
Total	7	11	12	24	19	25	98

Discussion

Owners of Clubs

Generally, the growth and prosperity of organizations are not considered bonanzas for individual actors, but are valuable ends in themselves (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1997). Owners tend to put the clubs in the promotion department and recognize that the main purpose of possession of the team is to promote the brand of products, outstanding image of enterprise, and good public relations to the mass etc. In Japan for example, Yomiuri Shimbun and Chunichi Shimbun use teams for sale promotions. The Hanshin Electric Railway Co., Ltd and Seibu Group used teams for the tickets’ revenue and urban development along its railway line, and the ORIX Corporation obtained good reputation and credit from its club. However, it has been seen that except for the Yomiuri Giants, the Hanshin Tigers and Hiroshima Toyo Carp, all clubs are operating through a great support, often as much as three billion Japanese Yen or about US$ 25 million, from their parent companies (Nihon Keizai Shimbun, 2004; 2005). A considerable rise in the salaries of players recently is often criticized, but, from the start of the professional league, parent companies still pay the difference as an advertisement (Kobayashi, 2004). Again, this is because there are ‘extra’ recognized benefits which these parent companies expect to obtain from the baseball clubs, even though they are ‘losing’ money by investing in this industry. This is evident in Taiwanese professional baseball systems as well, where most clubs are in a ‘red’ negative profit condition in terms of financial investment.

Besides their value for the purpose of social promotion, another reason for companies keeping clubs is the tax abatement allowed by the government, including some policies of preferential treatment to reward the companies’ investment. For example, in Japan, the National Tax Administration Agency permits the parent companies to enter the cost for the baseball clubs under losses (Kobayashi, 2004). In Taiwan, though professional baseball business is viewed as a commercial activity, the government provides support in kind for this industry, such as no levying entertainment (around 10%) tax on clubs but clubs paying lower Education tax (around 2.5%) from their financial income, gate revenue in particular.

While obtaining ‘benefits’ from the government, on the one hand, owners still have a specific obligation and responsibility to shareholders in terms of transparency and accountability (Henry & Lee, 2004). On the other hand, they also need to meet the interests of those who are involved in the organization in different forms, such as players, supporters, sponsors, and so on. Nevertheless, in Taiwan’s system, owners of clubs are dominant in ‘steering’ [controlling] the operation of the whole network. A Committee Board, composed of representatives of owners, is authorized powerfully far beyond the leagues and is to be responsible for important agreements, (contracts, for instance) of clubs and players. Ironically, as this ‘institution’ is so dominant, the duties of the leagues are thus only policed through setting the agenda of the seasonal games, promoting images of clubs, players, and negotiating related affairs with the government under the requests of this influential committee board.

Comparing Japanese owners’ power with Taiwan’s case shows no difference between these two. For instance, in Japan, although Hiromitsu Ochiai submitted his wage case to arbitration in the end of the 1990 season, it was deemed mainly controlled, more precisely, nullified by the employers’ ‘dominant power’ (Whiting, 2004). Indeed, “A Mediation Committee is composed of three members, the commissioner and the chairman of the Central League and the Pacific League. No one is selected from a third party” (Suzuki, 2000: 2). The above claims have evidently reflected on the owners’ attitude toward the whole system when the well-known owner of the Yomiuri Giants, Tsuneo Watanabe, has stated that “If any players are accompanied by an agent at a table of salary negotiation, I will absolutely cut the salary of that player…” (Suzuki, 2000: 1).

Governments

In Taiwan’s case, the role of national government is to ‘regulate’ contractual frameworks for the industry and to make the benefits of the whole available to all stakeholders. The role of the Sports Affairs Council acts as a public sector lever in order to achieve positive social and economic benefits in the private sector. The government to develop this sport and the capital spending and infrastructural effects of the merger, for example, were evident (Lin, 2003). The baseball stadia, planned or under construction, are designed not only for baseball tournaments, which include international, domestic, and professional baseball games, but also to develop local prestige (culture). They serve as well to promote economic activities with cooperation between the central and local governments (Sports Affairs Council, 2004). The implementation of these programs sought to be mutually beneficial for both the public and the private sectors. However, the provision of a stimulus for capital spending on new and rejuvenated sporting facilities and improvements raised some questions which were concerned with who really benefited most from such spending. Also, did they really meet the criteria of the government’s initial reasons for promoting such policies? The state, though an actor within the Taiwanese sporting system in terms of having the most resources of income (taxation), personnel, information, and if necessary force of law, sought to ‘influence and steer’ but not to directly ‘control’ the professional sports’ field. For instance, as all the players have signed contracts with the clubs which were fully controlled by the owners, it is likely that the players’ voice has been getting lower in order to secure their jobs (Hsien, 2007). Despite the government being responsible for protecting her citizens’ civil rights, such as work, life, freedom of moving etc. according to the Constitution, nonetheless, the professional baseball business is recognized as a commercial activity by the government, which has been used to keep this industry open and free under the rule of the market mechanism. The existence of commercial contracts agreed by both the clubs’ owners and players simply reflects this concern where the government (public sector) was not seeking to be involved and thus avoiding inviting criticism over government intervention from the private sector.

Interestingly, Taiwan’s government acknowledges that baseball had contributed much, not only to the achievements of its political purposes such as enhancing national prestige, aiding international diplomacy, but also to economic goals such as reducing unemployment and expanding business opportunities (Lin, 2003). Thus, attempts at rejuvenating Taiwan’s baseball community and promoting future development of Taiwanese sports after the 1997 professional baseball gambling scandal were evident and thus brought the state, the sporting governing bodies, and the commercial sector together in coping with this issue. A concern raised here was that the ‘cooperation’ of combating this crisis among actors had invited the government to ‘intervene’ in this sport. Subsequently, the hosting of the 2001 Baseball World Cup (BWC) had further provided this government with a basis to be involved in [professional] baseball matters, and the success of the 2001 BWC had greatly inspired the government to promote and complete the merger between the two Taiwanese professional baseball leagues (CPBL and TML) in the 2001-03 period.

Although having shared ‘similar attitudes’ toward recognizing the behavior of the professional baseball industry as a commercial activity both by Japan’s and Taiwan’s governments, to some extent, these two governments have dealt with matters related to this business in different ways. In Japan, as central government recognizes the importance of promoting sport policies, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology established the Basic Plan for the Promotion of Sports in 1999 (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, 1999). In this plan and other government reports, it is apparent that central government was concerned with Japan’s performance in world competitive sports and emphasized the necessity of launching sports developing programs for citizens from kids to top athletes (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, 2006). Unfortunately, these reports are unable to embrace or consider relevant affairs of particular sports in which the professional baseball industry was also included. Though lacking government ‘full attentiveness’, national tax agency in Japan had promoted the provision of tax abatement for professional baseball since some decades ago (National Tax Agency Japan, 1954). Having an understanding of the government’s attitude toward to professional baseball, in the first strike case of NPB’s players in 2004, it is clear that interactions (negotiation) for tackling this crisis between owners, players, media, and even fans was evident. One could see the Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology merely held a press conference which mentioned the hope to avoid the strike (Kyodo, 2004). Another good example is that, since the 1990s, Japanese companies were struggling with economic recession, which has forced these companies to reform their business structures in which the business of professional baseball was thus influenced and changed. Companies such as Kintetsu Corporation and Daiei disbanded their teams, which led to Softbank Group and Rakuten buying team companies, and Murakami Fund began a merger and acquisition for the owners’ companies. Again, for these issues, the Japanese government ‘totally respected’ the operating mechanism of a free market and didn’t intervene in the professional baseball industry. Governments at local levels are also indecisive whether to invest for the professional baseball teams. For example, Miyagi prefecture and Sendai City rejected subsidizing to rebuild the stadium because of the demands from team companies which have reflected on Kobayashi’s claim that it is improper for the government to subsidize the NPB teams in terms of promoting [professional] baseball (Kobayashi, 2004). Nevertheless Japanese central government introduced a new public management program called Shiteikanrisha-Seido in 2003 because of the administrative reform. It was not for the aid of the professional baseball industry. As a result, in Miyagi prefecture and Chiba prefecture, the right of managing the stadia, which were controlled by local governments, has been transferred from the public sector to the NPB’s teams. By these contracts, clubs of Rakuten Golden Eagles and Chiba Lotte Marines have made it possible to gain revenues by managing commercial activities of the stadia. Thus, the relationship to bridge the local governments and NPB’s teams is significant when managing such a professional baseball business.

Players

Considering players’ rights in these two systems, one major function of their associations is to be able to apply pressure to meet their own interests. In Taiwan, an ‘occasional’ player association appeared shortly in 1994, however, ‘keeping silent’ became the best policy for players because of the recession of the professional sport market later. The Association is now recognized as informal and perhaps only one function—emergency aid—exists. In Japan, the Japanese Professional Baseball Players Association (JPBPA) was established in 1985, nevertheless, “neither antitrust related lawsuits nor labor related lawsuits have been filed against the owners, because the JPBPA is so weak and players know they will be black-listed unless they obey the owners’ decision” (Suzuki, 2000: 1). To some degree, professional baseball players in Japan and Taiwan consider it important to be loyal to the club owners instead of having an emphasis of individual rights. Therefore one can have an unsurprising example when famous pitcher Hideo Nomo decided to undertake a loophole in the tradition Japanese professional baseball rules that enabled him to circumvent free-agent regulations in 1995. He became fed up with the traditional constraints of group loyalty and being greatly criticized by fans, in which Japan’s media termed him a ‘troublemaker’ and even a ‘traitor’ (Whiting, 2001). Therefore, it has been rare for players to attempt to file a lawsuit against their owners in Taiwan as well as in Japan, except in the occurrence of the 2004 striking case in Japan. Nevertheless, the situation has changed as we can see players such as Hideki Matsui and Daisuke Matsuzaka participate in the MLB in recent years while seeking to achieve their personal ‘interests and dreams’. In addition to players’ own considerations, the worsening financial difficulties of clubs’ sponsoring corporations (Seibu for example) also lead the migration (sale) of players to the MLB. The most famous pitcher of NPB, Daisuke Matsuzaka, who joined the MLB in 2007, can serve as an example in which the Seibu Corporation received US$ 51 Million paid by the Boston Red Sox.

In Taiwan’s professional baseball system, another issue that emerged concerned the draft system in which players could only ‘voluntarily’ join their preferred clubs by the system outwardly, which used to be organized by the leagues but was actually controlled by the owners(Chen, Chen & Hsu, 2008). Consequently, it has been seen that negotiations of players’ draft picking proceeded with a lack of considering views from player, supporter, etc. Hence, players and supporters are insufficiently influential to negotiate with other stakeholders. For this issue, the government has sought to urge the leagues to establish a sound and fair system to recruit players (Sports Affairs Council, 2000), which was designed to promote the competency and the uncertainty of outcomes between clubs’ games. Unfortunately, this action met with little success since clubs always have their own considerations. Actually, promotion [improvement] of Taiwan’s specific draft system has been considered by the clubs and the league recently. Nevertheless, in comparison with professional baseball leagues either in the USA or Japan, Taiwan has a long way to go to promote its own system in issues, for example, of arbitration, free agency, unions, and so on. In Japan, despite the fact of having a more ‘advanced and sound’ operating mechanism in the professional baseball system than Taiwan, the NPB players’ rights are still far behind the players in MLB. For instance, in 1993, a free agency system had been promoted; however, there were limitations existing that have hindered players’ mobility, such as the fact that players were unable to be free agents after nine years of service in the first club (Suzuki, 2000). Meanwhile, before the period of obtaining the right of free agency, if players intend to develop [continue] their careers in MLB, they have to get through a termed posting system which disallows a player choosing clubs, even if he has already been awarded offers by other clubs. Therefore, only the clubs have the rights to make decisions for players to select or refuse offers from the MLB clubs (Suzuki, 2000). In this sense, the development of the Japanese professional baseball system has its necessity to improve in general, players’ rights in particular. Having given explanations and analysis of power relationships, interactions of the three actors namely, owners of clubs, governments, and players. Table 2 below helps highlight the key governance features of the two professional baseball systems in terms of roles’ power of various stakeholders.

Table 2
Key Governance Features of the Two Professional Baseball Systems

	Japan	Taiwan
Role of governments	Weak-Mixed State non-intervention except the provision of tax abatement.	Strong-Mixed State defines professional baseball as a ‘corporate business’ within a free market, which should not be interfered with. However, state constructs and maintains stadia, and promotes developing programs through school system.
Role of owners of clubs	Strong Leagues and clubs are mainly controlled by the employers’ ‘dominant power’.	Strong A Committee Board, composed of representatives of owners, has authority over the operation of the leagues.
Role of players	Weak-Mixed Though having a gradually ‘advanced and sound’ operating mechanism, the NPB players’ rights are still behind the players in MLB.	Weak Players’ voices are weak and tended to be ignored by clubs. Issues such as Regulations of Arbitration, Free Agency, Player Association etc. have being ignored.
Most powerful actors	A Mediation Committee is composed of three members.	The Committee Board is composed of representatives of clubs.

Conclusion

In this case of identifying governance features of the two professional baseball systems, which have shaped the thrust and pace of the developmental strategies in the Japan’s and Taiwan’s structural contexts, the Japanese and Taiwanese models would seem to imply a two-fold structuring of the contemporary systems. Both of the two professional sport systems, though under the global pressures, have developed their operating mechanism where it has given way to specific management in some ways.

This study illustrates that various actors behaved in order to achieve strategic goals. In Taiwan, the state, though incorporating the most powerful set of actors within its sporting system, with access to financial resources, personnel, information, and if necessary force of law, sought to steer rather than demand its preferred outcome. The state still plays an influential role in the professional baseball system (e.g. the 2003 merger issue between the two leagues) though identifying it as a free commercial activity, in which any kinds of intervention may not be favored. The Japanese case is a different story from Taiwan since its government intends to have non-intervention except for the provision of tax abatement.

Owners of these two systems stand in a stronger bargaining position in most aspects. The current process of governance still represents a buyer’s market in which players’ powers are limited because of their lack of access to strategic resources to affect outcomes. Nevertheless, the Japanese system has gradually been improving to be more ‘open and completed’ and players’ rights are more considered and respected in comparison with Taiwan’s case. Additionally, the Mediation Committee in Japan and the Committee Board in Taiwan were recognized as the two most powerful actors and believed to represent the ‘extended forces’ of professional baseball clubs. Under the ‘guidance’ of these two Committees, the two leagues (NPB, CPBL) have administrative responsibilities, but with no real power. They simply play less important roles in their systems.

Finally, it suggests that various countries have their local environments (conditions), which are consonant with their particular social values. As a result, a successful professional sport management should be able to reflect national characteristics and be consistent with a country’s cultural values in the globalized context. Indeed, [professional] baseball is recognized as a public good, produced and owned by a wider set of publics which include clubs, players, supporters, spectators, and the wider community. Having given a contribution to identifying some key characteristic features of Japan’s and Taiwan’s professional baseball systems, in order to obtain the sustainable development of these two systems, it is suggested that all those possible investing resources and those of the community need to be served.

Ping-Chao Lee (First and Corresponding author)
Department of Physical Education, National Taichung University, Taiwan
Address: 140, Min-Shen Road, Taichung City (403), Taiwan
Phone: +886-4-22183013
Fax: +886-4-22183410
E-mail: p.c.lee@ntcu.edu.tw

Yoshio Takahashi
Institute of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Japan
Address: 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba-Shi, Ibaraki-Ken 305-8574, Japan
E-mail: yoshi@taiiku.tsukuba.ac.jp

Chien-Yu Lin
Graduate Institute of Sports and Health Management, National Chung Hsing University, Taiwan
Address: 250, Kuo-Kuang Road, Taichung City (402), Taiwan
E-mail: cylin1349@nchu.edu.tw

Koh Sasaki
The Research Center of Health, Physical fitness and Sports, Nagoya University, Japan
Address: Furo-Cho, Chikusa-Ku, Nagoya City, 464-8601, Japan
E-mail: sasaki@htc.nagoya-u.ac.jp

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U.S. Sports Academy2015-02-12T11:35:10-06:00January 8th, 2010|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Optimizing Development of the Pectoralis Major

Miguel Jagessar and Michael Gray, Academy of Sport and Leisure, The University of Trinidad and Tobago, Trinidad, West Indies.

Abstract

Jagessar, M. Optimizing development of the pectoralis major. 2009. This article seeks to determine optimum body/hand position and the best exercises for development of the pectoralis major. Gaps in the field of literature are also addressed. Body/hand position, execution, width of grip, trunk inclination, dumbbells and barbells are all variables that affect the prime movers (pectoralis major, anterior deltoid and triceps brachii) of the bench press. Electromyography is a technique used for recording changes in electrical potential of muscle fibres that are associated with their contractions Payton, C. J., Bartlett, R. M. (Eds.) (2008). Electromyographic (EMG) studies are well known for determining muscle activity. Due to the overwhelming contradictory information and various variations of the bench press, EMG studies have been undertaken. The research has shown that the horizontal barbell bench press done with a grip between 165% to 190% biacromial width produces maximum EMG activity in the pectoralis major. The clavicular (upper) head produces maximum activity in the close grip incline barbell bench press. Dumbbells and barbells can be used interchangeably to overcome training plateaus.
(more…)

U.S. Sports Academy2016-10-20T14:29:17-05:00January 8th, 2010|Sports Coaching, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Effects of Three Modified Plyometric Depth Jumps and Periodized Weight Training on Lower Extremity Power

Damon P. S. Andrew, Troy University; John E. Kovaleski, University of South Alabama; Robert J. Heitman, University of South Alabama; Tracey L. Robinson, Adams State College

Abstract

Plyometric exercises increase muscular power and are most effective when designed to complement the specific movements required of the athletic activity. This study compared the effects of modified depth jump plyometric exercises versus a periodized weight training program on the following functional tests: one-legged vertical jump, two-legged vertical jump, 30-meter sprint, standing broad jump, and 1 RM of the seated single leg press. Sixty-four untrained participants (18-28yr) were randomly assigned to one of the following groups: hip depth jump (n = 12), knee depth jump (n = 13), ankle depth jump (n = 13), weight training (n = 13), or a control (n = 13). Experimental groups trained two days a week for 12 weeks. Statistically significant improvements were observed among the plyometric groups for functional tests of power and the weight training group for functional tests of strength and speed. Results indicate that modified plyometric depth jumps offer a greater degree of specificity related to power training in athletes.

Key Words

Hip depth jump, knee depth jump, ankle depth jump, muscle power, resistance training, plyometrics

Introduction

The term “plyometrics” refers to specific exercises which encompass a rapid stretching of muscle that is undergoing eccentric stress followed by a concentric, rapid contraction of that muscle for the purpose of developing a forceful movement over a short period of time (Chu, 1983). One particular plyometric activity, the depth jump, has been shown to improve power in the vertical jump (Batholemew, 1985; Miller, 1982; Parcells, 1977; Verkhoshanski & Tatyan, 1983). Depth jumps are a type of dynamic exercise where an individual steps off a box 20 to 80 centimeters in height, lands, and performs an explosive vertical jump (Wilson, Murphy, & Giorgi, 1996). The depth jump is thought to enhance vertical jump performance through the quickening of the amortization phase, which is the electromechanical delay from the initiation of eccentric to the initiation of concentric muscle actions of the movement (Steben & Steben, 1981).

Plyometric depth jumps have been modified to generate greater stresses at the joints of the hip, knee, and ankle (Holcomb, Lander, Rutland, & Wilson, 1996a). These variations were identified as the hip depth jump (HDJ), knee depth jump (KDJ), and ankle depth jump (ADJ). Each variation included modifications to the range of motion of the joint being emphasized during the eccentric portion of the depth jump. The HDJ, KDJ, and ADJ are thought to increase the workload, and thus power, at the particular joint for which they are named. The need for such a modification stemmed from biomechanical analysis of both the vertical and depth jumps. In biomechanical analysis of the vertical jump, the hip was found to contribute 23-39% of the total work done during the vertical jump (Bobbert, Huijing, & Van Ingen Schenaue, 1987; Bobbert, MacKay, Schinkelshoek, Huijing, & Van Ingen Schenaue, 1986; Hubley & Wells, 1983; Van Soest, Roebroeck, Bobbert, Huijing, & Van Ingen Schenaue, 1985). However, two analyses of the depth jump revealed the hip contribution to be only 19% and 13% respectively (Bobbert et al., 1986, 1987). Consequently, the traditional plyometric depth jump does not stress the hip joint to the extent that it is used during the vertical jump, the functional task it was originally designed to enhance.

Biomechanical analysis of the modified plyometric depth jumps was also performed to analyze joint contribution through total work done at each joint (Holcomb et al., 1996a). Total work at the hip, knee, and ankle joints was 80%, 5%, and 15%, respectively, during the HDJ. Analysis of the KDJ revealed contributions of 37% at the hip joint, 49% at the knee joint, and 14% at the ankle joint. The joint contributions during the ADJ were reported to be 24%, 20%, and 56% at the hip, knee, and ankle joints, respectively. Therefore, each depth jump primarily stressed the particular joint for which it was named.

The effectiveness of training programs is routinely measured via functional test performance. Functional tests usually contain a series of movements that have high correlations with athletic activity and are used for research, evaluation, and rehabilitation purposes. Biomechanical analyses of functional tests can reveal percent joint contributions to the activity. Table 1 contains the percent joint contributions of modified plyometric depth jumps and selected functional tests for this study. Although specific joint contributions have not been calculated for the 30-meter sprint or seated single leg press, some research has examined the power output of these functional tests. Researchers have identified the hip to be a dominant force producer in sprints of short duration (Mero & Komi, 1990; Mero ,Komi, & Gregor, 1992; Mero & Peltola, 1989). Wilk et al. (1996) examined the electromyographic activity of the quadriceps and hamstring muscles during a two-legged seated leg press and found a high degree of quadriceps activity, suggesting significant power contributions from the knee joint. When compared to the squat, the seated leg press allows for smaller compressive forces to the tibiofemoral joint (Escamilla et al., 1998), making the activity an ideal accommodation for untrained participants.

Table 1
Percent joint power contribution of modified plyometric depth jumps and functional tests

	Hip Joint	Knee Joint	Ankle Joint
Hip depth jump (22)	80	5	15
Knee depth jump (22)	37	49	15
Ankle depth jump (22)	24	20	56
30-m sprint	N/A	N/A	N/A
One-legged VJ (39)	34.4	23.9	41.7
Two-legged VJ (25)	28	49	23
Two-legged VJ (39)	32.9	37.7	29.4
Two-legged VJ (35)	40	24.2	35.8
Two-legged VJ (22)	57	23	20
Standing broad jump (35)	45.9	3.9	50.2
Seated single leg press	N/A	N/A	N/A

Holcomb Lander, Rutland, and Wilson (1996b) continued their research with a progressive resistance eight week training study comparing the modified plyometric depth jumps to other methods that have shown to significantly increase vertical jump height, including conventional plyometric depth jumps (Adams, O’Shea, O’Shea, & Climstein, M, 1992;, Blattner & Noble, 1979; Brown, Mayhew, & Boleach, 1986; Gehri, Ricard, Kleiner, & Kirkendall, 1998; Hewett, Stroupe, Nance, & Noyes, 1996; Huber, 1987; Polhemus & Burkhardt, 1980; Verkhoshanski & Tatyan, 1983; Wilson et al., 1996), countermovement jumps (Clutch, Wilton, McGown, & Bryce, 1983; Gehri et al., 1998), and weight training (Baker, Wilson, & Carlyon, 1994; Blaket, 1985; Ford et al., 1983; Stowers et al., 1983). The researchers chose to combine all three of the modified depth jumps into the training schedule of one group (Mod. Plyo) and compared that group to a traditional depth jump group (Plyo), a countermovement jump group (CMJ), a weight training group (WT), and a control group (CON). The weight training group performed four lower extremity exercises with progressive resistance including standing plantar flexion, knee extension, knee flexion, and leg press, while the control group did not train. The 51 college age male participants in the study trained three times per week for eight weeks. The exercise volume was controlled so that each group performed an identical number of repetitions, whether it involved lifting weights or jumping.

The results showed non-significant improvement for all groups during the static jump. All training groups improved performance in the countermovement jump (CMJ improved 4.0%; WT improved 4.7%; Plyo improved 6.5%; Mod. Plyo improved 4.5%), but the CON group performance decreased 3.2%. The traditional plyometric group differed significantly from the control group (9.7% difference). The lack of significant improvement of the Mod. Plyo group was attributed to a possible negative impact on the learning of the proper technique required for a successful jump due to altered range of motion of the plyometric depth jumps. We suggested that future research incorporate a longer period of training to assure a higher training effect.

Weight training has been shown to enhance power primarily through gains in peak force of the muscle rather than rate of force development (Hakkinen, Allen, & Komi, 1985a). Plyometric training of the lower extremity has been demonstrated to promote power primarily through increased rate of force development rather than increased peak force of the muscle (Bobbert, 1990; Hakkinen, Komi, & Allen, 1985b, Lundin, 1985). A positive relationship has been established between plyometric training and improvement in several functional tests of the lower extremity in addition to the vertical jump (Lyttle, Wilson, & Ostrowski, 1996; Wilson, Newton, Murphy, & Humphries, 1993). However, recent developments in modified plyometric depth jumps show promise of increased specificity for power training of the lower extremity (Holcomb et al., 1996a, 1996b). According to the principle of specificity (Wilmore & Costill, 1994), one should expect that a training program designed to stress the specific physiological systems required for the output activity would result in optimal performance. Holcomb et al. (1996b) grouped all of the modified plyometric depth jumps into one training program, which eliminated the possibility to determine the specific effects of each modified plyometric depth jump. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to assess the effects of three types of plyometric depth jumps and weight training on the (a) one-legged vertical jump with a countermovement, (b) two-legged vertical jump with a countermovement, (c) 30-meter sprint, (d) standing broad jump with a countermovement, and (e) 1 RM of the seated single leg press following a 12-week training program. The separation of the three modified plyometric depth jumps into distinct groups along with the addition of other functional tests for the lower extremity should show the increased training specificity of the modified plyometric depth jumps.

Hypothesis

Based on the biomechanical data concerning joint contributions in Table 1, the researchers formulated the following hypotheses:

H1: Participants who trained using the hip depth jump will significantly improve their 30-meter sprint times versus the participants who train using the knee and ankle depth jumps, weight training, and the control group.
H2: Participants who trained using the knee depth jump will significantly improve their two-legged vertical jump heights versus the participants who train using the hip and ankle depth jumps, weight training, and the control group.
H3: Participants who trained using the ankle depth jump will significantly improve their one-legged vertical jump heights and standing broad jump distances versus the participants who train using the hip and knew depth jumps, weight training, and the control group.
H4: Participants who weight trained the lower extremity will significantly improve their 1RM of the seated single leg press versus the participants who train using the hip, knee, and ankle depth jumps, and the control group.

Methods

Participants

Sixty-four recreationally active college-aged individuals volunteered for this study (Table 2). The participants did not perform either plyometric or weight training of their lower extremity for a period of at least six months prior to the study. After approval by the University’s IRB, all participants signed an informed consent.

Table 2
Descriptive group data

	HDJ^a	KDJ^a	ADJ^a	WT^a	CON^a
Number	12	13	13	13	13
Sex^b	M=9; F=3	M=11; F=2	M=8; F=5	M=7; F=6	M=9; F=4
Height (cm)	174.8 ± 8.3	177.0 ± 7.5	176.8 ± 9.7	175.3 ± 11.7	173.6 ± 11.4
Mass (kg)	70.6 ± 13.5	75.8 ± 14.3	72.8 ± 12.4	69.6 ± 15.5	76.4 ± 17.9
Age (yr)	22.3 ± 2.6	20.8 ± 1.6	20.8 ± 1.3	21.0 ± 2.4	22.0 ± 1.7

a) HDJ = hip depth jump, KDJ = knee depth jump, ADJ = ankle depth jump, WT = weight training, CON = control;
b) M = male, F = female

Participants were randomly assigned to one of five groups: hip depth jump, knee depth jump, ankle depth jump, weight training, or a control group that did not train.

Depth Jump Protocol

Three plyometric depth jump groups performed only the specific exercise for which their group was named. The exercises were performed as described by Holcomb et al. (1996b). For the hip depth jump, the subject began to flex the trunk during the fall from the box so that the trunk was flexed to 45° upon landing and continued to flex the trunk until the trunk was parallel to the ground. In the knee depth jump, the subject landed fairly erect, and flexed to beyond 90° at the knee, all while keeping the trunk erect. During the ankle depth jump, the subject remained as erect as possible when landing except for slight flexion at the knee. For all three jump groups, the participants jumped vertically with maximum effort as quickly as possible after landing.

All three depth jump groups performed an identical training protocol that included seven sets of 12 repetitions, which resulted in a total of 2016 repetitions for the 24 training sessions. Each jump set was followed by a period of rest from three to four minutes. Training intensity, defined as initial height of the depth jump, began with a 15.24 cm (six inch) drop height and progressed an additional 15.24 cm every three weeks, ending with a 60.96 cm (24 inch) drop height. The modified plyometric training groups were monitored by a researcher for correct jump form to ensure proper joint stress.

Weight Training Protocol

The weight training group’s exercises included the seated single leg press, standing calf raise, and knee extension and flexion for each leg. The weight training program was designed to first develop muscle strength with progression to workouts that emphasized muscle power. This periodized approach consisted of four phases with each phase lasting three weeks. The first phase involved three sets of ten repetitions of the subject’s ten repetition maximum for each exercise. The second phase included three sets of eight repetitions of the subject’s eight repetition maximum for each exercise. The third phase involved three sets of six repetitions of the subject’s six repetition maximum for each exercise. Finally, the fourth phase included three sets of four repetitions of the subject’s four repetition maximum for each exercise. The subject’s one repetition maximum for each exercise was measured prior to each phase, and a chart that estimates weight for designated multiple repetitions based on the one repetition maximum was used as a guide for training weight selection (Fleck & Kraemer, 1987). The weight training group completed a total of 2016 repetitions at the conclusion of the 24 workout sessions. The weight training protocol was more periodized than that of the modified plyometric depth jump groups because both repetitions and intensity were manipulated for the weight training group, whereas only intensity was manipulated for the modified plyometric depth jump groups.

Testing Protocol

Both the two-legged and one-legged vertical jumps were performed with a countermovement, with the subject’s dominant leg used for one-legged jumping. Testing procedures included having the subject standing flat-footed and erect facing a marked wall while extending the dominant arm. The highest height at which the fingers touched the wall was recorded. The subject then jumped vertically with maximum effort. The Vertec jump training system (Sports Imports, Inc., Columbus, Ohio) was used for data collection, and the best of three trials was recorded. The total vertical jump score was calculated in centimeters as the standing height score from the marked wall subtracted from the jumping height score of the Vertec. The vertical jump results along with the subject’s weight were used as variables in an equation to convert the data into Watts, a true measure of power that allows a fair comparison between participants (Sayers, Harackiewicw, Harman, Frykman, & Rosenstein, 1999). The Sayers formula (Sayers et al., 1999) is as follows: Peak Power (W) = 60.7 × [jump height (cm)] + 45.3 × [body mass (kg)] – 2055.

The standing broad jump was performed by jumping horizontally from a starting line with a countermovement. The participants began in a standing position with both feet firmly positioned on the ground. The participants jumped horizontally with maximum effort landing on both feet, and the distance covered from the heel of the foot closest to the back of the starting line was measured. The best of three trials was recorded in centimeters.

The 30m sprint was performed by running a distance of 30 meters from a stationary position as quickly as possible. The participants began in a crouched sprinter’s position without blocks and were timed using a Solo time 450 electronic timing system with a hand pad (Solo Time, Denver, Colorado). The hand pad was placed on the starting line and was contacted by the subject’s hand after an acceptable starting position was obtained. The use of this device allowed the subject to begin the sprint at his or her own command by releasing the hand from the hand pad with the initiation of the sprint. When pressure to the hand pad was released, the electronic timing device was activated until the subject crossed an electric beam at the finish line. The participants performed three sprint trials and were allowed three minutes rest between each trial. The best of three trials for the time (seconds) it took the subject to travel 30 meters was recorded.

The dominant and non-dominant leg press was performed using a Paramount leg press machine (Paramount Fitness Equipment Co., Los Angeles, California). The participants were placed in a seated position with approximately 90° of knee flexion and instructed to lift the maximum amount of weight possible using only a single leg against the weight plate. The one repetition maximum mass for the dominant and non-dominant legs was recorded in kilograms along with the subject’s seat position data to ensure identical seat position from the pre to post test.

Data Analysis

Paired sample T-tests were used to analyze the difference between pre and post-test scores. A One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was performed on the pre-test scores for all groups on all functional tests. Due to significant differences between groups in pre-test dominant leg press scores, Analysis of Co-variance (ANCOVA) was used for subsequent analysis of functional test data. Significant findings from ANCOVA prompted Bonferroni adjusted independent sample T-tests for post hoc analysis. These T-tests compared the group hypothesized to excel in that particular functional test to the other groups. All tests were performed at the 0.05 alpha level of significance.

Results

Percent change from pre- to post-testing for all functional tests are presented in Table 3.

30 Meter Sprint

For the 30m sprint, only the weight training group lowered their times significantly (t = 2.226, df = 1, 12; p = .046) from pre to post-test, but the group’s improvement was not found to be significantly better than any other group (F = 1.181, df = 4, 63; p = .165).

Leg Press

Significant improvements were noted for the HDJ (t = -8.130, df = 1, 11; p < .001), KDJ (t = -8.849, df = 1, 12; p < .001), ADJ (t = -4.054, df = 1, 12; p = .002), and WT (t = -9.142, df = 1, 12; p < .001) groups for the dominant leg press. The WT group recorded the most improvement and was found to be statistically greater than the ADJ (t = 1.917, df = 1, 12; p = .035) and CON (t = 6.073, df = 1, 12; p < .001) groups.

Similar results were obtained for the non-dominant leg press. Significant improvements were gained by the HDJ (t = -6.607, df = 1, 11; p < .001), KDJ (t = -8.973, df = 1, 12; p < .001), ADJ (t = -4.068, df = 1, 12; p = .002), and WT (-8.652, df = 1, 12; p < .001) groups. Even though the WT group improved the most, it was statistically superior to only the CON (t = 3.959, df = 1, 12; p < .001) group.

Standing Broad Jump

Significant improvements for the HDJ (t = -2.687, df = 1, 11; p = .021), KDJ (t = -4.466, df = 1, 12; p < .001), and ADJ (t = -6.287, df = 1, 12; p < .001) groups were observed for the standing broad jump. The ADJ group recorded the greatest improvement but was not found to be statistically greater than any other group (F = 1.386, df = 4, 63; p = .125).

Vertical Jump

For the one-legged vertical jump, significant improvements were recorded for the KDJ (t = -4.335, df = 1, 12; p < .001), ADJ (t = -2.981, df = 1, 12; p = .011), and CON (t = -2.920, df = 1, 12; p = .013) groups. Even though the KDJ group improved the greatest, it was not statistically superior to any other group (F = 1.537, df = 4, 63; p = .102).

In the two-legged vertical jump, the results showed significant improvements for the KDJ (t = -3.721, df = 1, 12; p = .003), ADJ (t = -3.865, df = 1, 12; p = .002), and CON (t = -2.792, df = 1, 12; p = .016) groups. The ADJ group showed the most improvement and was found to be statistically superior only to the WT (t = 2.380, df = 1, 12; p = .014) group.

Discussion

The influence of the principle of specificity of exercise (Wilmore & Costill, 1994) was evident when examining the results of this study. In general, the modified plyometric depth jump groups excelled in functional tests of power, while the periodized WT group performed better in functional tests of speed and strength. However, not all testing outcomes occurred as expected.

The WT group showed the greatest increases in dominant and non-dominant leg press strength. In regards to the principle of specificity of exercise, this outcome was expected since the WT group incorporated dominant and non-dominant leg press exercises in their training protocol. In addition, significant increases in leg strength were also gained by the HDJ, KDJ, and ADJ groups. Previous plyometric training studies (Adams, 1984; 14, 34) have reported gains in leg strength (12.7 to 23.8%), but not to the magnitude shown by the modified plyometric depth jump groups (29.1 to 48.4%) with this study. Chu (NSCA, 1986) describes plyometric depth jumping as an activity that acts to increase the neuromuscular system’s ability to perform concentric contraction more effectively because the forces encountered in plyometric exercises lead to greater synchronous activity of motor units and earlier recruitment of larger motor units via the myotatic reflex. Therefore, the significant increases in leg strength experienced by the modified plyometric depth jump groups may be in response to an enhanced neuromuscular system.

A review of the biomechanical aspects of lower extremity functional tests revealed the contributions of each joint to the performance of a particular functional test. Muscle activation patterns involving EMG analysis of sprint running during its initial phases show maximal power output occurring at the hip joint (Mero & Komi, 1990). Although sprinting primarily measures speed, a short distance was chosen to maximize analysis of acceleration time, thereby increasing the measurement of power. Therefore, those training for power at the hip joint should have a physiological advantage when performing a short sprint. However, only the periodized WT group improved significantly from pre to post-testing. The possible explanations for this finding include the sprinting distance, which may have been too short to emphasize power production, and the use of untrained participants, who may have had low levels of muscle strength before training.

A study concerning the kinetics of broad jumping reported the joint power contributions of the hip, knee, and ankle joints to be 45.9%, 3.9%, and 50.2%, respectively (Robertson & Fleming, 1987). The ADJ group recorded the greatest gains as expected, but the HDJ and KDJ groups also attained significant improvements. Perhaps the general gains in lower extremity power by the modified plyometric depth jump groups enabled significant improvements in broad jumping distances.

Van Soest, Roebroeck, Bobbert, Huijing, and Van Ingen Schenau (1985) reported the joint power contributions of the hip, knee, and ankle joints during the one-legged vertical jump to be 34.4%, 23.9%, and 41.7%, respectively. The greatest gains in the one-legged vertical jump were experienced by the KDJ group, but significant improvements were also recorded for the ADJ and CON groups. The CON group also achieved significance despite showing the lowest percentage of height gain of all groups. The dominance of the KDJ group in this functional test was unexpected due to its reported low involvement in the activity when compared to the other joints of the lower extremity (Van Soest et al., 1985). Perhaps the knee joint is more important to power production during the one-legged vertical jump than previously reported.

Biomechanical analysis of the two-legged vertical jump showed the joint contributions for the hip, knee, and ankle joints to range from 28 to 57%, 23 to 49%, and 20 to 35.8%, respectively (Holcomb et al., 1996a; Hubley & Wells, 1983; Robertson & Fleming, 1987; Van Soest et al., 1985). The ADJ group improved most from pre to post-test, but significant results were also recorded for the KDJ and CON groups. Although the CON group agreed not to undertake any additional training outside of their normal daily activities, perhaps the normal activities of the physical education students selected for the control group influenced their performance on the functional tests. However, this possibility is merely speculation as an exit interview was not conducted due to time constraints.

An equalization of training volume was attempted between groups in this study through equating total training repetitions. Future training studies involving modified plyometric depth jumps should examine variables such as length of training period, participants’ prior training status, and training volume and intensity. Limited research has compared the training stimuli of depth jumping versus weight lifting in regards to the magnitude of stimulus provided by each respective training repetition. Perhaps lifting a particular weight produces a greater stimulus to the muscle than depth jumping from a particular height, or vice versa.

Furthermore, the exercise performed by the WT group emphasized involvement of the entire lower extremity, while the modified plyometric depth jumps primarily stressed one particular joint and muscle group. Perhaps a fairer comparison could be made if the weight training exercises were designed to be joint specific and then compared to the respective modified plyometric depth jump. The inclusion of weight training with the plyometric exercise, which has been reported to produce a synergistic training effect in traditional plyometric activities (Lyttle et al., 1996), could also be examined.

In summary, the effectiveness of four training methods constructed for their potential improvement of strength, speed, and power among untrained participants was examined in this study. Generally, functional tests requiring power were dominated by the modified plyometric training groups while the periodized weight training group prevailed on tests emphasizing strength and speed. The strength and conditioning professional can apply these results to better create training programs for athletes desiring strength, speed, and power of the lower extremity.

About the Authors

Damon P.S. Andrew is the Dean of Health and Human Services at Troy University in Troy, Alabama. John E. Kovaleski and Robert J. Heitman are from the Department of Health, Physical Education and Leisure Studies at the University of South Alabama in Mobile, Alabama. Tracey L. Robinson is from the Department of Human Performance and Physical Education at Adams State College in Alamosa, Colorado.

Corresponding author:

Damon P. S. Andrew, Ph.D.
Dean, College of Health and Human Services
Troy University

153 Collegeview
Troy, AL 36082
Office: 334-670-3712
Fax: 334-670-3743
dandrew@troy.edu

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Wilson, G., Newton, R., Murphy, A., & Humphries, B. (1993). The optimal training load for the development of dynamic athletic performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 25, 1279-1286.

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U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-25T19:27:24-06:00January 8th, 2010|Sports Coaching, Sports Exercise Science, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Economic Impact of Equestrians on Aiken, South Carolina

Dr. Sanela Porca and Dr. J. Ralph Byington, School of Business Administration, University of South Carolina Aiken

Abstract

The equestrians have played a critical role in the growth and development of the Aiken County economy. The equestrian activities in Aiken, South Carolina, consist of many different events such as polo, horse racing, horse showing, carriage driving, and fox hunting, to name a few. The input-output analysis of the Aiken equestrian industry reveals that its operations have a substantial impact on output, jobs, and income in Aiken County. Like any other industry, the equestrian industry makes a variety of input purchases that translate into flow of funds throughout the local economy. The indirect and induced effects of the equestrian industry work through numerous other sectors within the local economy and contribute to Aiken County’s economic growth and development.

Introduction

The equestrians have played a critical role in the growth and development of the Aiken County economy. Besides the local economy, the equestrian migration from the north effected Aiken’s culture and businesses. Just like any other equestrian group, the Aiken equestrians are fragmented with numerous groups, associations, and stakeholders. All of them have different interests and goals. The goal of this paper is to define the Aiken County equestrian industry and to define its economic impact on Aiken County’s economy. In order to determine the nature and scope of the local equestrian industry, an equestrian survey was designed and conducted. The survey was aimed at the equestrian enthusiasts who live and work in Aiken and Aiken County. The data obtained from this survey was utilized to provide descriptive and normative analysis of the equestrian industry and its economic profile and impact.

Equestrian Activities in Aiken County

The equestrian population, activities, and events are constantly growing in Aiken, South Carolina. The equestrian activities consist of many different events such as polo, horse racing, horse showing, carriage driving, and fox hunting, to name a few. In order to define and analyze a complex sector such as the equestrian one, an equestrian survey was conducted. The purpose of this survey was to highlight a set of equine-related activities that are present in Aiken. The survey was distributed to randomly selected individuals considered to be horse owners and/or enthusiasts. An electronic version of the survey was sent to several different equestrian associations with an appeal to share the survey with their members. Furthermore, hard copies of the survey were placed at different locations in Aiken and 20% of the participants returned their responses. The survey had eight sections with questions related to equine activities, inventory, labor and capital expenses, equine expenses, gross receipts, tourism related activities, and general information.

The first survey question asked participants to define their equestrian activities in the past 12 months while specifically determining the number of days spent in Aiken versus the number of days spent in other counties in South Carolina and elsewhere. Figure 1 illustrates participants’ responses to the first question. The obtained data suggests that a majority of the equestrian activities are pleasure related (48%), followed by competition (21%), breeding (18%), and racing (13%). Individuals whose equestrian activities consist of pleasure riding and breeding spend more than 50% of their time in Aiken, while racing and competition account for one-third of responders’ time spent in Aiken. Responses indicate that the states of Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Wyoming are “other locations” where “local” equestrian enthusiasts spend their time.

When asked to define more specific activities within major categories, 17% and 21% of participants report that they enjoy fox hunting and polo, respectively. According to the survey results, the polo activists spend more than 55% of their time in Aiken, versus 45% for fox hunting enthusiasts. Fourteen percent of the survey participants indicate that trial riding (both English and Western) is their preferred equestrian activity in Aiken. These particular equestrian individuals spend about 30% of their time in Aiken and the other 70% outside of South Carolina. Eight percent of the participants report dressage as their main equestrian activity with 44% of their time spent in Aiken. Five percent consider driving as their leading discipline with 35% of their time in Aiken and 65% outside of South Carolina. Nineteen percent of the respondents are jumper and/or hunter enthusiasts with 47% of their time spent in Aiken. Four percent of participants select lessons, training, and fundraising as their dominant equestrian activity with 43% of their time spent in Aiken. Figure 2 illustrates different types of equestrian activities conducted in Aiken.

Horse Population in Aiken County

To address the equine inventory in Aiken, the second survey question asked participants to identify the equine breed they own or board. According to the data, the estimated total equine inventory in Aiken County tops 6,785 horses. As indicated by Figure 3, the most dominant breed is still Thoroughbred (32%) followed by Quarter Horse (22%), Warm Blood (9%), Ponies (9%), Tennessee Walker (6%), Pinto/Paint (6%), Miniature (5%), Mules and Donkeys (4%), Draft Horses (2%), and several other breeds (5%).

The obtained data was used to estimate the total and average value of equine inventory in Aiken County. Table 1 provides the estimated average value per breed for Aiken County. According to this data, the most valuable breed in Aiken is Warm Blood ($17,907.00) followed by Thoroughbred ($16,982.00). The survey showed the average equine value for all breeds is $5,002.00. The total estimated equine value for all breeds included in survey is $59,086,223. This somewhat higher total value of all horses in Aiken County is due to a high percentage of Thoroughbred horses present in the county and their respective high market value.

Table 1
Estimated Horse Value Per Breed

Equine Breed	Per horse value
TN Walker	2908
Thoroughbred	16982
Miniature	1684
Quarter Horse	3735
Draft Horse	2980
Warm Blood	17907
Mules/Donkeys	1016
Ponies	1557
Pinto/Paint	2904
Other	3350

Equestrian Industry Capital Expenditures and Gross Receipts

The equestrian industry is very important to the local economy as it affects numerous and diverse activities such as agriculture, business, sport, entertainment, and recreation. The equestrian industry has introduced thousands of new people to the area in terms of owners, riders, trainers, etc. In order to determine the scope of the equestrian sector, the survey respondents were asked several questions about their capital expenditures and gross receipts. The participants were asked to list their annual capital related costs for the following categories: new equine purchases, new building and equipment investment, building and equipment depreciation, fencing investment, and interest on investment. The largest capital expenditure were new building and equipment investments (56%) followed by the new equine purchases (36%). Figure 4 illustrates capital related spending for the year 2007.

In addition to this, the respondents were asked to list the value of their personal property, business property, land, and any other category they relate to their equestrian activities. The responses indicate that business property (e.g. farm, barn) are the most valuable properties in this category (49%) followed by personal property (39%), and land (11%). Figure 5 illustrates these responses.

When asked about the taxes they pay to state and local government, the respondents indicate that the taxes paid to state government account for 46% of their total tax burden, followed by Aiken County taxes (32%), and Aiken City taxes (19%). The government permits, licenses, and/or contracts account for 3% of total tax spending of the Aiken equestrian industry.

Employment and Labor Earnings

The equestrian industry has its effect on the local labor market as well. Survey question # 3 asked respondents to report the number of full-time, part-time, and seasonal workers they employed for the past 12 months. Besides these three labor categories, two other categories – family members and others – were also choices for respondents. According to the results obtained from the survey, far more full-time workers are employed by the Aiken equestrian industry than any other worker. Seasonal workers are the second largest labor category, followed by family members, part-time, and other workers. Not every survey participant provided employment and labor earning responses. The total number of all workers across survey respondents who answered these two questions was 751. Such a high number of workers clearly support the constant care and management which horses require. Figure 6 summarizes the responses regarding equine related labor. The respondents report 243 full-time, 106 part-time, and 200 seasonal workers employed by the Aiken equestrian industry. In addition, there are 163 family members who contribute to the local equestrian sector. Under the “other” category, respondents indicate 39 contract-workers were hired during the past 12 months. Question # 3 also asked respondents to indicate the total equine-related payroll expenses for the past 12 months. The total reported payroll in 2007 was $3,122,300.00. This indicates a relatively high level of compensation given the fact that almost 22% of equine related labor are family members and 41% are part-time and seasonal workers combined.

Tourism Related Activities and Benefits

Tourism activity generates a wide variety of benefits to the local economy such as tax revenues from travel-related expenditures and new employment opportunities. When tourists arrive in an area, they spend money on products and services acquired from the local business community. Businesses that benefit directly from tourism include lodging establishments, restaurants and bars, recreational facilities, amusement parks, gas/convenience stores, department stores, and sporting goods retailers. Over the past several decades, tourism in Aiken County has been steadily increasing and this growth can be related to the boom in the equestrian industry. The equestrian industry is bringing more and more people in for riding lessons, to watch the shows, to shop in the equine stores, to buy horses, and to attend polo and other equestrian events.

The survey of tourists was conducted during the spring time and that is when the Aiken equestrian community draws the most attention due to the Triple Crown events. A total of 96 surveys were filled-out and the data was analyzed to reveal some important characteristics of tourists visiting Aiken. Fifty percent of respondents had previously been to Aiken on more than one occasion. This indicates a high rate of return visitors with a majority of them stating that they repeat this visit at least 2-4 times. Generally, the people that responded with a higher number of return visits to Aiken also indicated a family and/or friend connection with Aiken or a horse association referral.

Figure 7 illustrates the results from the question that asked participants about the events that brought them to Aiken. The majority of respondents were either visiting family/friends (37%) or they were visiting a horse event (34%). For some of the respondents, these two categories were interchangeable. The other three “referral” categories for tourists to choose from were golf (11%), historical attractions (9%), and other (9%). The visitors who had family/friends and horse association connections also indicated that they did not need tour guide services while in Aiken. These respondents also characterized Aiken as “exciting for tourists” (67%). The remaining 33% stated that Aiken was not particularly exciting either because there is “no nightlife for single tourists” or there is very “limited activity for families.”

Economic Impact of the Equestrian Industry on Aiken County’s Economy

The equine related businesses bring over a billion dollars into the South Carolina economy and support suppliers throughout the state. These contributions are very important as industries such as tourism, marketing, and many others are impacted by the equestrian industry. This is important from the economic perspective as it is much easier to grow and maintain an existing, productive industry than to build a new one. Therefore, in this section the equestrian expenditures are reported as they serve as a main determinant of the size of this industry.

Table 2
Total Equestrian Related Expenditures in 2007

Expenditure Category	Dollar Value	Percentages
Boarding Fees	1,449,125	10%
Equine Purchases	2,496,000	18%
Stable Lease	629,000	4%
Animal Health	2,132,875	15%
Feed	1,215,195	9%
Grooming	2,299,735	16%
Fees	2,933,350	21%
Maintenance	1,014,720	7%
Total	14,170,000	100%

There are several main sources of equestrians’ expenditures in Aiken County. The equestrian survey asked participants to report their equestrian related expenditures for 2007. All together there were 32 expenditure categories which were combined into eight groups: boarding fees, equine purchases, stable lease payments, animal health, feed, grooming, fees, and maintenance. The total equestrian industry expenditures (without labor and capital costs) for 2007 were $14.17 million and are reported in Table 2.

As Table 2 and Figure 8 indicate, the equestrian expenditures were spread widely among the eight selected categories. The main expenditure categories reported by the participants were horse-related fees (21%), which include training, track, breeding, and show/tournament related fees. The second largest category was new equine purchases (18%). Grooming came in the third place (16%) and includes expenses such as farrier, clothing and other supplies (for both individuals and horses), grooming supplies, saddle & tack, advertisement, utilities, insurance, etc. The fourth largest category was animal health (15%), which included veterinarian fees, medicine, hospital-surgery/lab work, and other health related services. Boarding fees accounted for 10% of total equestrian expenditure while feed (feed, feed supplements, seeds, etc) and maintenance expenditures (fertilizers, building and equipment repair, fencing, etc) accounted for 9% and 7% respectively.

This study estimates an annual cost of $7,393.00 per horse, which amounts to $50.163 million in total spending produced by the equestrian sector. This immediate impact of the equestrian industry on Aiken County’s economy is a solid base for the County’s economic growth and development. However, in addition to the direct economic impact of the Aiken equestrian industry, there are additional indirect effects or so called “ripple” effects that get created by the initial equestrian spending. Numerous workers in Aiken County are employed by the local equestrian industry and those jobs provide workers with income which enables them to purchase goods and services from our local economy. These purchases are translated into additional economic impacts of the Aiken equestrian industry. These multiplied effects are explained and discussed in the following section.

Input-Output Analysis, Multiplier Effects & Economic Impact

It is important to measure the interrelationship of the equestrian industry with other industries in Aiken County. This study uses an economic input-output analysis in order to understand the inter-industry relationships between the Aiken equestrian industry and the local economy as well as the long-term impacts that result from equestrian businesses and activities. There are numerous economic models that can generate economic multipliers and estimate the long term benefits of an industry. However, this study uses the economic impact software program IMPLAN (IMpact Analysis for PLANning) to estimate the total economic contribution of the equestrian industry to the Aiken County economy. With this input-output model the purchases and sales of commodities between industries, businesses, and final consumers can be easily traced and analyzed. The input-output model uses the multiplier analysis to estimate the direct and indirect contribution of an industry. For example, total spending by the equestrian industry for labor, feed, veterinarian services, insurance, etc. create employment and income for businesses in those sectors. The output multiplier will measure the effect of a $1 change in an industry’s sales on the output of all other local industries.

The intention is to use the input-output model to estimate the “multiplier” portion of the equestrian industry’s impact on the Aiken County economy. However, the “equestrian industry” is not a well defined industry by the existing standard defined by the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS). In other words, while there are numerous other industries well defined by the United States Census Bureau and NAICS (e.g. farming, mining, manufacturing, trade, etc.), the equestrian activities are considered to be a part of the agricultural sector. Therefore, any spending regarding the equestrian sector (according to this definition) contribute to supporting the suppliers of the agricultural sector. However, the equestrian industry goes beyond the agricultural sector. Many race tracks and stables in Aiken County are not part of farm operations and not all horses are kept on farms. This makes it difficult to use a standard input-output model to estimate the economic impact of our local equestrian industry. Given the responses obtained from the equestrian and the tourist surveys, this study defines an equestrian industry as the one that reaches and affects numerous other industries and activities such as the agricultural sector, farm construction and maintenance, hunting, sporting goods, real estate, veterinary services, accounting and advertising services, hotels and other accommodations, and spectator sports. Based on the findings from the two surveys conducted, these 11 different industrial activities are closely related and affected by the Aiken equestrian industry. Therefore, when the economic impacts of the equestrian industry were estimated, a unique model that reflects diverse and multiple-industry related activities of the Aiken equestrian industry was created. All 11 above mentioned industries were combined and averaged out to obtain an economic impact that the equestrian industry has on our local economy.

The study estimates four different kinds of equestrian industry effects on our local economy:

Direct Effects are associated with the Aiken equestrian industry’s direct gross receipts.
Indirect Effects represent the relationship between different firms working through input purchases of goods and services.
Induced Effects are economic impacts that arise from spending of household income earned by workers employed by the Aiken equestrian industry.
Total Economic Impact of the Aiken equestrian industry is calculated as the sum of the direct, indirect, and induced effects of the Aiken equestrian industry.

The economic benefits gathered by the Aiken community are best measured in terms of the number of jobs created and the amount of personal income accruing to local residents. In the case of the equestrian industry, there are certain direct effects associated with the $50.163 million in total spending and estimated 1,329 full-time workers. The impacts of the equestrian industry on employment are given in Figure 9. As mentioned earlier, the Aiken equestrian industry itself accounts for 1,329 jobs. There are an additional 283 jobs due to indirect effects and 202 jobs due to induced effects. In total, 1,814 jobs in Aiken County can be attributed to the operations of the equestrian industry. The estimated 1,329 jobs translate into 1.7% of total jobs in Aiken County and this makes the equestrian sector an important local employer.

Furthermore, this study estimates the impact of the equestrian industry on the local household income. These estimates are given in Figure 10. There are $16.93 million in income effects that result directly from the local equestrian industry. In addition to this, there are indirect linkages that account for an additional $2.09 million, and the induced effects are another $217,513.00. In total, the impact of the Aiken equestrian industry on household income is estimated to be $19.25 million annually in 2007.

Finally, the economic impact of the Aiken equestrian industry can also be gauged by analyzing the effect of an average dollar in output on our local economy. In terms of the output multiplier of the equestrian industry, one dollar of spending by this industry leads to $1.65 of spending in the local economy. In other words, for every dollar of spending made by local equestrians, an additional 65 cents is generated for the Aiken County economy. Relative to other industries that dominate the Aiken economy, this multiplier is smaller than the ones produced by the manufacturing sector (2.05) or the construction sector (2.10). However, the equestrian multiplier is still larger than the FIRE multiplier of 1.51 (FIRE – Finance, Insurance, and Real Estate). Figure 5.4 illustrates direct, indirect, induced, and total output effects that the Aiken equestrian industry has on our local economy. The $50.16 million in direct gross receipts leads to an additional $11.76 million in indirect effects and an additional $9.89 million in induced effects for a total of $71.82 million.

Therefore, the key indicators of equestrian activities include total industry output, total income, and employment. Table 3 and Figure 12 summarize all the above mentioned effects of the equestrian industry on our local economy. The total estimated impacts of the Aiken equestrian industry are $71.81 million in gross output, 1,814 workers, and $19.25 million in labor earnings. The indirect effects are $11.76 in gross output, 283 workers, and $2.09 million in labor earnings, while the induced effects are $9.89 in gross output, 202 workers, and $217,513 in labor earnings.

Table 3

	Total Impact	Direct Impact	Indirect Impact	Induced Impact
Gross Output	$71,817,514.65	$50,163,380	$11,764,446.86	$9,889,687.79
Household Income	$19,250,943.46	$16,937,618.10	$2,095,812.09	$217,513.27
Employment	1814	1329	283	202

This input-output analysis of the Aiken equestrian industry reveals that its operations have a substantial impact on output, jobs, and income in Aiken County. Like any other industry, the equestrian industry makes a variety of input purchases that translate into flow of funds throughout the local economy. The indirect and induced effects of the equestrian industry work through numerous other sectors within the local economy and contribute to Aiken County’s economic growth and development.

Summary

The equestrian industry of Aiken provides many economic and cultural benefits to the people who live here. Aiken’s equine industry presents itself in many different ways starting from local business development to veterinarians, furriers, dentists, boarders, and other businesses closely related to horses. The current study estimates substantial benefits to the Aiken County economy through the creation of jobs, labor income, and output. Besides the economic benefits and contributions, the equine industry is very influential as it effects Aiken’s social, cultural, and financial environments. Given Aiken County’s strong reliance on industries susceptible to external factors – industries such as administrative and waste services, manufacturing, and construction – it is a recommendation of the current study to nurture the equestrian industry as an important economic cluster. The equestrian industry is an existing economic cluster of firms and institutions whose activities interconnect with the rest of the Aiken County economy. Nurturing the equestrian industry of Aiken should be the long-term goal. Industries such as tourism, accounting, marketing, and many others are impacted by continued growth of the Aiken equestrian industry.

References

South Carolina Department of Agriculture. (2008). South Carolina Market Bulletin. (Volume 83). Columbia, South Carolina: Author.

U.S. Bureau of Census. (2007), North American Industry Classification System. Washington, DC: Author.

Dr. Sanela Porca and Dr. J. Ralph Byington
School of Business Administration
University of South Carolina Aiken
Aiken, South Carolina 29801
803.641.3340

U.S. Sports Academy2016-10-12T15:01:23-05:00January 8th, 2010|Sports Facilities, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

The Perceived Role of Senior Women Administrators in NCAA Division I Institutions

Laura M. & Lance C. Hatfield, University of Georgia; Jan L. Drummond, University of Tulsa

Abstract

The Senior Woman Administrator (SWA), originally named the Primary Woman Administrator (PWA), is a role designed to return to women a voice in the operations of intercollegiate athletic departments that was lost as a result of the takeover of the AIAW by the NCAA. The purpose of this study was to examine the role of the SWA as it exists today and as it could become in the future. The Senior Woman Administrator Survey was developed and administered to all NCAA Division I SWAs. Senior Woman Administrators overwhelmingly disagreed with the statement suggesting they have been given responsibilities that are appropriate for their job. Further, in order for SWAs to have authority that is more than advisory in nature, they must have final decision making authority in budget and personnel. Finally, SWAs indicated that their primary functions were advocating for women’s athletics, gender equity, and serving as a role model.

Introduction

Women’s intercollegiate athletics was built on the foundation of physical education programs for female students. Athletics for women was governed and administered by female physical education teachers and coaches. In the beginning, women’s athletics programs were operated with an educational philosophy emphasizing participation over competition. Demand began to rise for more competitive women’s athletics and a governing agency to ensure appropriate administration. This demand resulted in the creation of the Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW). The AIAW began forming in the late 1960s, became fully functional in 1971, and was in control of women’s athletics by the summer of 1972 (Hult, 1994; Hult in Hult & Trekell, 1991).

The educational focus of the AIAW is well documented. The Association’s leadership was intent on maintaining a “student-centered, education-oriented model” (Hult in Hult & Trekell, 1991). The first significant attack on this unique model of intercollegiate athletics came with the Kellmeyer case in 1973. This class action lawsuit was filed by a group of tennis players and their coaches challenging the AIAW’s ban on offering athletic scholarships. The leadership within the AIAW reluctantly admitted defeat and permitted member institutions to provide athletic scholarships to female student-athletes. The Kellmeyer case is recognized as one of the Association’s first steps in moving away from its original focus on education and moving toward the more commercialized model of intercollegiate athletics used by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) (Hult in Hult & Trekell, 1991; Wu, 1999, 2000).

Title IX of the Education Amendments, which passed in 1972 and banned discrimination at educational institutions that received federal funds, led to reforms that made athletic opportunities for male and female students more equitable. This new legislation brought explosive growth in participation by female athletes (Hult, 1994). Title IX introduced a new standard in that opportunities for female athletes were now being compared to opportunities for male athletes in terms of the quantity and quality of the opportunities. Women sought equitable participation opportunities as well as equitable support in scholarships, benefits, and services. As opportunities within women’s sports continued to increase, the governing body for men’s athletics, the NCAA, saw both an opportunity and a threat. An opportunity in that the NCAA anticipated that, with the implementation of Title IX, women’s athletics was going to be significantly funded, and thus, discussion began within the NCAA to include women within the organization (Hult in Hult & Trekell, 2001). A threat in that the NCAA was concerned that the resources needed to support women’s programs would be redirected from the men’s programs. In an attempt to manage both situations, the NCAA made plans to offer championships for women and to eventually take over the AIAW. In 1981, women’s basketball championships were offered for women by the AIAW, the NAIA, and the NCAA (Trekell & Hult, 1991). The NCAA takeover of the AIAW in 1982 eventually resulted in the consolidation of men’s and women’s intercollegiate athletic programs, which left many female administrators and coaches of women’s programs without jobs or in secondary positions (Hult, 1994). The most devastating aspect of the demise of the AIAW was that within the AIAW, women controlled 90 percent of the programs. Within the NCAA membership, women were part of an organization where 95 percent of the voting representatives were male and knew little if anything about the philosophies of the AIAW (Grant, 1989). According to Uhlir (1987) “by 1979-1980, over 80 percent of all collegiate athletic administrations were merged, and 90 percent of the merged administrations had men at the helm. Frequently, the woman displaced was more qualified—with more experience, a higher degree, academic rank, and tenure.” With the loss of jobs or the relegation to secondary positions, women lost decision-making opportunities at the campus level as well as representation at national conventions, and these opportunities have never been recovered (Acosta & Carpenter, 2002).

The role of Senior Woman Administrator (SWA), initially called the Primary Woman Administrator (PWA), was designed to return to women the administrative opportunities they had lost and to ensure that women had a voice in the administration of intercollegiate athletic programs (Hult, 1994; National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2002). Today, considerable effort is still aimed at understanding the role of SWA for those who are already in, or who aspire to fill, senior administrative roles in athletic programs because of the changes that have occurred since the AIAW-NCAA consolidation in 1982 (Copeland, 2005; Hosick, 2005). In order for SWAs to be effective administrators, their role must be clearly understood, and they must have adequate levels of influence on administrative strategies and courses of action within athletic departments not just on issues related to gender equity and women’s sports (Gill-Fisher, 1998; National Collegiate Athletic Association, 1994; Watson, 1994). When an SWA is excluded from discussions beyond gender equity, compliance, or academic advising, the role of the SWA is limited and the entire athletics department is deprived of the insight this person can provide to enhance the experiences of all.

Until the role of the SWA is clearly understood, both the SWA and her constituents will continue to be frustrated with the results of her leadership. Unless action is taken to remedy less than desirable situations, the results will have little impact (Watson, 1994). It is hoped that athletic administrators will utilize this study in examining the role of the SWA on their campuses and assist this person in contributing more fully to the overall administration of the athletic program, thus making the SWA a viable and integral member of the athletic department and campus leadership.

The purpose of this study is to examine the role of the Senior Woman Administrator as it currently exists and as it could become in the future in order to make recommendations for a more clearly understood and utilized role. In order to accomplish this, answers to the following research questions were sought: (1) Do SWAs perceive that they are being given appropriate responsibilities for their role? (2) Do SWAs perceive that they have decision-making power in budgeting? and (3) What is the SWA’s role in the advancement of women in athletics?

Method

Participants and Procedure

All NCAA Division I Senior Woman Administrators (SWA) were surveyed. Each member institution within the NCAA Division I is required to list a Senior Woman Administrator on the NCAA Institutional Representatives Form that is completed annually by the athletic department (D. Oberhelman, personal communication, July 2002). In addition to the SWA, each institution’s CEO (Chief Executive Officer), AD (Athletics Director), FAR (Faculty Athletic Representative), and Compliance Coordinator is listed on this form (D. Oberhelman, personal communication, July 2002). SWA addresses were obtained from The National Directory of College Athletics, an official publication of the National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics (National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics, 2002). Envelopes were addressed generically to the Senior Woman Administrator. Each NCAA Division I institution should have identified an SWA on their NCAA Institutional Representatives Form and, therefore, has already designated someone to receive mail addressed in this manner (D. Oberhelman, personal communication, July 2002). Survey packets were sent to all SWAs in NCAA Division I and included a letter of introduction, the coded Senior Woman Administrator Survey, and a postage-paid, return envelope. Surveys were coded only for the purpose of tracking responses to prevent reminder postcards from being sent to those who had already returned surveys. For those who had not returned surveys, a follow-up postcard was sent 18 days after the survey packets were sent.

Materials

The data collection instrument used in this study was the “Senior Woman Administrator Survey” developed through literature review, a related survey conducted by the NCAA, and interview responses gathered from three SWAs in NCAA Division I institutions in the southeast. In 1994, the NCAA’s Committee on Women’s Athletics used a similar survey. Selected items from the NCAA Survey were used with permission. The Senior Woman Administrator Survey included items designed to assess the perceptions of the SWA and her role in the athletic department.

In developing the Senior Woman Administrator Survey, interview responses were gathered from three SWAs at NCAA Division I institutions. Interview items were divided into the following sections: Demographics, Perceived Leadership Style, Relationships within Athletic Department, and Conclusion. The interview questions were open-ended in nature and the approved protocol allowed for probing questions as appropriate. Interview responses were transcribed. Responses found to be consistent among subjects or very unique in nature were then used to formulate survey items.

The Senior Woman Administrator Survey consists of three parts: Part I: Demographic Profile, Part II: Position/Institutional Profile, and Part III: SWA Perceptions. Part I: Demographic Profile included questions regarding sex, race, education level, and professional experience. Part II: Position/Institutional Profile included questions designed to describe the SWA’s role at the institution as well as provide information about the institution. Part III: SWA Perceptions was designed to assess the SWA’s perceptions of her role within the athletic department including the areas of appropriate responsibilities, authority, decision-making, leadership, value to the athletic department, and job satisfaction.

Face validity of the instrument was evaluated by a panel of experts consisting of one NCAA Division I SWA, one NCAA Division I Compliance Coordinator, and one Associate Professor of Coaching and Sport Administration. After the face validity test, minor adjustments were made to the survey. Internal consistency was determined by administering the survey to 28 NCAA Division II SWAs in the southeast. Chronbach’s alpha was used to assess internal consistency and eliminate any items with low item-total correlation. Using Chronbach’s alpha, the internal consistency was determined to be .96. No items were eliminated from the survey.

Following the initial mailing to all NCAA Division I institutions and an 18 day follow-up postcard, 150 (46%) usable surveys were returned. An analysis of the data was conducted as follows: (a) Demographic Profile Information responses and Position/Institutional Profile responses were analyzed through the use of descriptive statistics with frequencies and percentages of responses tabulated for each item and each alternative within each item, (b) Senior Woman Administrator Perception responses were analyzed through the use of inferential statistics with frequencies and percentages for responses in each category being compared to determine if observed differences were statistically significant at the p < .05 level, and (c) Responses regarding the perceived role of the SWA within the athletic department including the areas of appropriate responsibilities, authority, decision-making, leadership, value to the athletic department and job satisfaction were analyzed through the use of descriptive statistics with frequencies and percentages of responses tabulated for each item and each alternative within each item. Responses were indicated on a Likert-type scale with the following scores: 1: Strongly Disagree, 2: Disagree, 3: Somewhat Disagree, 4: Somewhat Agree, 5: Agree, and 6: Strongly Agree.

Results and Discussion

Appropriate Responsibilities

In response to the statement, “I have been given responsibilities that are not appropriate for my job,” 73.9% disagreed at some level with this statement. Table 1 shows the responses to this item.
SWAs overwhelmingly disagreed with the statement suggesting that they have been given responsibilities that are appropriate for their role. In the development of the Senior Woman Administrator Survey, interviews were conducted to assist in survey construction. One interviewee suggested that “whenever it was time to plan a party, I was asked to plan it.” Overall, the responses to this item indicate that progress has been made in accepting the SWA into the fraternity of athletic administration. It is also important to note that responses were received primarily from SWAs at Football Bowl Subdivision (formerly Division IA) institutions. These are the premiere institutions in the country, and they may have been the most diligent in developing the role of the SWA at their institutions.

Budget Decisions

In response to the statement, “I have final decision-making authority on budgetary decisions,” 61.0% of SWAs disagreed at some level with this statement. Table 2 shows the responses to this item.

In order for the SWA to have authority that is more than advisory in nature, she must have final, decision-making authority in the area of budgetary decisions. This finding is consistent with Claussen and Lehr (2002) who determined that, “SWAs possess only advisory authority for most functions analyzed.” For example, if the coach of a sport reports to the SWA and the SWA has denied a request for money to be allocated in a particular way, the coach should not be able to approach another athletic administrator and be granted his or her request. Furthermore, the SWA should have access to the paperwork that is submitted confirming that the money requested was spent as permission was given. For example, if a coach is told that he or she is not permitted to take the team to a movie on a road trip, the SWA should have access to the voucher submitted by the coach upon their return to confirm that the coach did not take the team to a movie. Unless the SWA is given the authority to grant and deny permission for spending coupled with the access to accountability methods, greater opportunity exists for her authority to be subverted.

Advancement of Women in Athletics

SWAs indicated that, for the most part, their primary functions should include functioning as an advocate for women’s athletics (n=128), gender equity (n=116), and serving as a role model (n=109), Table 3.

It is interesting to note that these primary functions do not necessarily cross over into the overall administrative strategies of athletic departments. Not minimizing the importance of the advocacy functions indicated, but it is the crossover into the overall scheme that women are looking for in the position of the SWA, “a female voice at the table, many times the only female voice,…providing a diverse, different view—a different perspective” (Stallman cited in Copeland, 2005). Claussen and Lehr (2002) found that SWAs had little decision making authority in marketing, development, promotions, and sponsorships, thus, limiting the scope of their involvement. As reported by McKindra (2009), a recent study conducted by the NCAA indicates an 8.2 percent increase the number of women serving in administrative positions. The increases have come in the positions of business manager, graduate assistant, academic advisor, and administrative assistant (McKindra, 2009). While the recent increases in women administrators seems to provide cause for celebration, a close look at these positions reveals advances in positions that do not cross over into the overall administration of the athletic department. Further, serving as an advocate for women is not enough, and when an SWA’s role is limited to advocacy then that individual’s impact on the overall administration of athletics programs is reduced (Copeland, 2005). If SWAs see their role as primarily dealing with women and their issues, then it will be difficult to persuade others that they need access to the other operations of the athletic department (Gill-Fisher, 1998).

Conclusions

The position of Senior Woman Administrator (SWA) was designed to include women in the administration of intercollegiate athletics, an opportunity that was lost for many as a result of the AIAW-NCAA consolidation (Hult, 1994; National Collegiate Athletic Association, 2002a). Overall, SWAs seem to be satisfied with the contributions they are making to their respective athletic departments, yet there still exists today some ambiguity regarding the role and function of SWAs. Those who are already in, or who aspire to fill, senior administrative roles in athletic programs may have a clear understanding of the role and function of the SWA as it is intended, but those working with the SWA, including coaches, athletic administrators, and university administrators are often unclear as to the role and function of the SWA.

In order for SWAs to be effective administrators, their role must be clearly understood. In addition, they must have adequate levels of influence on administrative strategies and courses of action within athletic departments, not just on issues related to women’s athletics (Gill-Fisher, 1998; National Collegiate Athletic Association, 1994; Watson, 1994). When SWAs are given authority in particular areas, i.e., budget issues, they need to be given access to the tools for accountability. Further study should examine whether or not the experience gained while serving in the role of SWA is adequate to advance the careers of these athletic administrators into positions of higher rank or authority or if the persons who fill the role of SWA are seen only as advocates for women’s athletics.

In order to gain a more accurate picture of the role of the SWA as it exists and as it could become at NCAA Division I institutions, continued research needs to be conducted on the perceptions of the SWA by members of the athletic department and other campus administrators regarding the role of the SWA on their campuses. Further, the women who fill the role of SWA need to consistently seek opportunities for involvement in all facets of the athletic department, not just issues related to female student-athletes, and in other aspects of campus leadership. As the NCAA and the member institutions seek to more clearly understand and utilize the role of the SWA at all divisions, those institutions which have effectively integrated the role of the SWA into the campus leadership should make recommendations for best practices in these areas.

Tables

Table 1

SWA Perceptions of Responsibilities Given Not Appropriate for Their Job

Responses Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent

Strongly Disagree                   37                                25.3                 25.3
Disagree                                  51                                34.9                 60.2
Somewhat Disagree                20                                13.7                 73.9
Somewhat Agree                    20                                13.7                 87.6
Agree                                      9                                6.2                 93.8
Strongly Agree                        5                                3.5                 97.3

No Response 4 2.7 100.0

Table 2

SWA Perceptions of Decision-Making Power in Budgeting

Responses Frequency Percentage Cumulative Percent

Strongly Disagree                   26                                17.8                 17.8
Disagree                                  42                                28.8                 46.6
Somewhat Disagree                21                                14.4                 61.0
Somewhat Agree                    27                                18.5                 79.5
Agree                                      24                                16.4                 95.9
Strongly Agree                        4                                2.7                 98.6

No Response 2 1.4 100.0

Table 3
In your opinion, what should be the primary functions of the SWA?

Functions Count Percent

Functioning as an advocate for
women’s athletics                               128                              88.3
Gender Equity                                    116                              80.0
Serving as a Role Model                     109                              75.2
Mentoring                                           85                              58.6
Strategic Planning                               72                              49.2
Personnel Evaluation and
Recruitment                                        69                              47.6
Budget                                                            58                              40.0
Marketing of women’s athletics         48                              33.1
Fundraising for women’s athletics      36                              24.8
Other                                                   30                              20.7
Facilities Development                       24                              16.6
SAAC Supervision                             21                              14.5
Compliance Issues                              13                              9.0
Game Management                             11                              7.6
Sport Supervision                                    5                              3.4
Academic Advising                                4                              2.8

(Respondent was asked to check all that apply.)

References

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U.S. Sports Academy2016-10-20T14:25:43-05:00October 5th, 2009|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Coaching, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology, Women and Sports|Comments Off