Sports Studies and Sports Psychology – Page 39

Identifying and Assessing the Elements of Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress in Sport

By: Jodi A. Burns

Introduction

Horror stories of outlandish behavior by coaches in the sport milieu: many have heard the stories, to one extent or another. Many have personally dealt with the accompanying emotions of dread, humiliation, discrimination, and fear that coaches have imposed during practices and games. Many have suffered immeasurably while helplessly watching their child endure torment at the hands of an abusive coach or coaches. Many have asked the same questions: What can be done? What good can possibly come from garnishing discussion with the coach, athletic director or administrator? Will the ordeal continue with new vigor because the problem was brought out into the open? Parents often struggle with these types of questions, wavering in a sea of indecision, wishing for easy solutions to unfortunate situations. And so the questions remain: what can be done; are there potential solutions; and where can one seek advice?

Assuming that the parties involved have exhausted all possible common sense remedies such as speaking directly with the coach and/or the administration, the logical next step would be to turn to tort law within the legal system. A tort is defined in The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (1982) as “a wrongful act, damage, or injury done willfully, negligently, or in circumstances involving strict liability, but not involving breach of contract, for which a civil suit can be brought” (p. 1280). According to the Free Online Law Dictionary (2009) a tort has three elements that a plaintiff must ascertain in court. First, it must be established that the defendant be under a legal duty to act in a certain way. Second, it must be shown that the defendant breached this duty by failing to match his or her actions accordingly. Third, it must be shown that the plaintiff suffered injury or loss as a direct result of the defendant’s breach.

The difficulty faced by courts considering sport related tort cases in regards to coaching behaviors is to distinguish an exact point where coaches have crossed the line. Because the alleged abuse is emotionally centered, it is difficult to discern emotional abuse from coaching tactics used to motivate athletes to perform at higher levels. Tort law that specifically targets this type of behavior is intentional infliction of emotional distress (IIED).

IIED is a tort claim that focuses on intentional conduct resulting in extreme emotional distress which causes a mental reaction such as anguish, grief, or fright in response to another person’s actions that brings about recoverable damages. According to Personal Injury Law (2009), to successfully prove a claim for IIED, one must establish four elements: the defendant acted intentionally or recklessly; the defendant’s conduct was extreme and outrageous; the defendant’s act is the cause of the distress; and the plaintiff suffers severe emotional distress as a result of the defendant’s conduct. Unfortunately, these four elements consist of ambiguous wording including such terms as reckless, extreme, outrageous, and severe that attempt to describe defendant actions. Elusive terms such as these have helped to create a confused tort that means “entirely different things to different judges” (Russell, 2008) resulting in wide-ranging court decisions and ones that are difficult to win.

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to identify and assess the elements of intentional infliction of emotional distress (IIED) and discover legal precedent. An attempt will be made to uncover potential solutions, if any are to be found, that can be employed when confronted with the unfortunate events that surround IIED within the sport environment.

Significance

Understanding the elements of intentional infliction of emotional distress will benefit athletic directors, coaches, athletes, parents, spectators, team owners, commissioners, and others associated with sport. It is essential to appreciate the legal aspects of sport because unique situational variables will inevitably arise in the sport milieu. Garnishing an appreciation of past legal precedent can benefit those suffering from the anguish created by IIED. Recognizing potential solutions can be a comfort to those directly and indirectly involved.

Review of Literature

Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress

Intentional infliction of emotional distress (IIED) is a tort that was created to address the threat of emotional harm that results in extreme emotional distress. IIED is also referred to as the tort of “outrage” because the defendant’s conduct is so extreme that it produces the response “outrageous!” from an average member of the community (Rapp, 2008). Outrageous behavior must be conduct that is atrocious and beyond the standards of a civilized society.

To characterize conduct that is “extreme and outrageous” and consequently meet the second element of IIED, one must determine what types of conduct would go beyond all reasonable bounds of human decency. The Legal Aid Society of San Francisco (2009) notes that “outrageous conduct does not include annoyances, hurt feelings, insults, rough language, or bad manners that a reasonable person is expected to endure.” This statement begins to provide advice to those suffering emotional distress at different levels; the law is not intended to handle frivolous claims. Although the emotional distress may not seem frivolous to those involved, the courts take a look at the severity of the distress including the intensity and duration to meet the fourth element of IIED. Severe or extreme levels of emotional distress must be long lasting and of the nature that no reasonable person is expected to endure. Severe or extreme levels may consist of highly distasteful emotions such as fright, grief, shame, humiliation, embarrassment, anger, or worry. Behavior that breaks criminal law would automatically meet the “extreme and outrageous” standard.

The first element of IIED points to the intentionality of the infliction of emotional distress. To meet this element, the defendant must conduct behavior that is pre-meditated and intended to cause harm rather than simply demonstrate mean-spirited actions. Ultimately the courts have the final say as to what is “extreme and outrageous” since case law has not provided an exact definition. The LSU Law Center’s Medical and Public Health Law Site (2009) points out that Missouri courts have stressed in Viehweg v. Tanny that a defendant’s conduct must be “more than malicious and intentional…and liability does not extend to mere insults, indignities, threats, annoyances, or petty oppressions.” It then stands to reason if the first element is established as a result of the defendant’s intentional conduct, then the third element (the defendant’s act is the cause of the distress) is also established.

Ambiguity

The ambiguity of the tort of outrage may open a window of doubt by giving a person enough skepticism to wonder whether the legal system can provide relief. Michael P. Ehline, Personal Injury Attorney (2009) provides a vivid example in his video clip that may give a bit more insight into what exactly is an “outrageous” situation. His example describes a circumstance where a person can claim IIED. If an individual’s child is attacked and killed in front of them by a person with ax, then claiming IIED is appropriate. This illustration gives us a graphic example of what type of heinous behavior would constitute as an utterly intolerable action in a civilized society. Other examples would include watching a child die in an accident from a distance or receiving a letter from someone falsely claiming that a parent, child, sibling, or spouse had died. These examples are ones in which the emotional distress is a reaction to some type of gruesome event or a horrible incident occurring in a violent situation. These examples help to put the tort of IIED into perspective. The majority of emotional distress that many have endured is not compensable.

Gap-filler

Over the years, the tort of IIED has become a “gap-filler” according to the Texas Supreme Court (Intentional Torts, 2009). The gap-filler’s purpose is to supplement other forms of recovery by providing an answer for barbaric conduct that might otherwise go unresolved. In other words, IIED is to be claimed only when more established tort doctrines are not applicable and the intentional harm is so severe that the plaintiff has no other means to rectify the situation. Thus IIED is a “gap-filler” as it can never overlap another tort.

Accepting that IIED is often characterized as a “gap-filler” and used very rarely only whenever the emotional distress is so extreme and outrageous, it makes one question if this tort can be of any help at all when it comes to dealing with abusive coaches in the sport milieu. As noted earlier in the case of Viehweg v. Tanny, IIED liability does not include mere insults, indignities, threats, annoyances, or petty oppressions. Also previously noted is the fact that outrageous conduct does not include hurt feelings, rough language, or bad manners that a reasonable person is expected to endure. Because the legal system is designed to address wide-ranging, ambiguous situational behaviors, one may never know if their own personal circumstances are behaviors that a reasonable person is expected to endure, unless the case is taken to the courts. The conduct endured may turn out to be extreme or outrageous in the eyes of a jury.

“Outrageous” Cases

It is pertinent to discover court cases that have dealt with claims of outrageous behavior to gain a better understanding of legal precedent. One case described by Simon (2009) recently met the definition of “outrageous” when a claim for IIED concerned an employee that was abused at work. In the case of Rothwell v. Nine Miles School District, the plaintiff, employed as a custodian, was ordered to clean up the mess of a suicide victim of whom she knew personally. Prior to cleaning up the mess, which included gruesome remains of the deceased, Rothwell was ordered to go through classrooms to look for bombs. At the suicide scene, she had found a book bag of which she began to open the contents until the police told her to stop. A little later, she watched the bomb squad detonate a bomb that was found in that same book bag and learned that there was another bomb also detonated at the football field. Rothwell became sick from post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and won her case due to emotional distress that was intentionally inflicted as a result of the District and Superintendant’s actions.

In a recent sports related case, a Kentucky high school head football coach, David Stinson, has been indicted on the charge of reckless homicide for the death of one of his players. On August 20, 2008, 15 year old Max Gilpin collapsed at practice from heat stroke and died three days later (FindLaw, 2009). Allegations were made in the case that the coaching staff denied the players water breaks on a day with a heat index of 94 degrees. Truman (2009) stresses in his blog that coaches “use denying water as punishment and somehow they feel the kids need to tough it out” and feels that this type of behavior is “inexcusable recklessness.” Even though the case was criminal in nature, one can imagine the emotional distress the athletes endured on that extremely hot day. Not to mention the distress of watching their teammate collapse and eventually die from heat stroke. If the coach punished the athletes by denying them water on a hot day, one can only imagine other kinds of emotionally distressing tactics that may have been put into practice with the team. In this case, the coach was caught utilizing these kinds of tactics through the untimely death of Max Gilpin.

A recent, well-publicized sport case between Major League Baseball pitcher Roger Clemens and his former trainer Brian McNamee actually did involve an IIED claim. Clemens claimed that McNamee fabricated the pitcher’s steroid abuse in an account that appeared in Senate Majority Leader George Mitchell’s 409 page report on the illegal use of steroids and other performance enhancing drugs. Clemens alleges that the untruths spoken by McNamee caused him severe emotional distress. Rapp (2008) suggests that there is one thing that McNamee did that might successfully make one claim the response of “outrageous!” Rapp avows that McNamee “kept dirty bandages, and Roger’s bodily fluids, in sealed bags for years, just in case he might need them later.” This type of behavior is, admittedly, highly unusual and disturbing. So much so that one can see the logic in making an IIED claim in this sport case.

These three lawsuits, the Rothwell, Gilpin, and Clemens cases, are three examples where one can easily see behaviors that were extreme and outrageous. A large amount of litigation that center on IIED claims contains elements that are more ambiguous in nature and are difficult to prove. Taking a look at successful and a bit vague IIED court cases, although not sport related, will provide a deeper understanding of legal precedent.

Successful ambiguous cases

Litigation victories for cases claiming IIED are not abundant especially in the sport venue. IIED claims that have awarded large sums of money for emotional distress establish precedent and provide background knowledge for future, potential litigation. The following two cases are extremely different, yet both show aspects of emotional distress that was severe and invasive.

The first case involves a civil suit brought forth by the plaintiffs regarding outrageous behavior of their next door neighbor. The case, Efros, et al., v. Giles, awarded the plaintiffs $350,000 for their claim of IIED. Giles was already criminally charged with aggravated stalking, malicious destruction of property, and malicious annoyance by writing (Verdicts & Settlements, 2008). Police discovered Giles to be the source behind the anonymous graphically suggestive and threatening letters directed toward the plaintiffs and also the vandalism of their home where Giles had thrown rotting fruit, eggs, D-cell batteries and feces. He also smeared feces on the automobiles in their driveway. For this behavior, the plaintiffs won their IIED claim as they stated they have been forever changed by Giles’ behavior which caused their severe and continual emotional distress. This case does show extreme criminal actions of which the defendant was sentenced two to five years in prison; however, it also shows that individuals can lean on the legal system when dealing with extreme and outrageous behavior of this sort.

The second civil court case finds a former high school teacher awarded a monetary amount for her IIED claim. Janis Adams alleged that administrators did not take proper action when an underground student newspaper made crude assertions about her (Walsh, 2002). The newspaper included articles written about Adams as a porno star and made vulgar references about the teacher and members of her family. Ms. Adams claimed that although preliminary disciplinary action was taken up with some of the students involved, school administrators did nothing to stop the distribution of the newspapers on campus. As a result, she was subjected to a severe, outrageous, and offensive work environment, which the administrators failed to remedy. Ms. Adams was awarded $1.1 million for lost earnings and $3.25 million for the IIED claim – totaling an award of $4.35 million.

Both of these unique cases show that it is possible to receive monetary damages for the intentional infliction of emotional distress. Although each case dealt with extremely different issues, together they show that individuals in society are not expected to deal with such outlandish behavior that causes emotional distress.

“Something more”

After a thorough review of legal precedent, one can begin to compare the emotional distress that is occurring within their individual sport milieu to determine the next step to assuage the problematic situation. If it is determined that the behavior of the one in charge (typically the coach) is bringing forth harmful consequences, then one is encouraged to seek legal counsel and sue for damages under the tort of IIED. However, if it is determined that the behavior is simply not bizarre enough to claim outrage in a civilized society, then court costs may not be worth incurring litigation.

Determining that legal recourse is not a viable option and assuming that the coach’s behavior is not going to change because all efforts have led down a windy path to nowhere, there must be “something more” that one can do to handle an oppressive situation. Each scenario will be different than the next and that “something more” solution will vary from case to case. Simply stated, there are no easy answers. It all boils down to making a determination as to what one can and cannot control.

Summary and Conclusions

Restatement of the Purpose

The intent of this paper is to identify and assess the elements of intentional infliction of emotional distress (IIED) and discover legal precedent. An attempt will be made to uncover potential solutions that can be employed when confronted with the unfortunate events that surround IIED within the sport environment.

Summary

The tort of intentional infliction of emotional distress is designed to bring about recoverable damages for those who have suffered from mental anguish, grief, or fright in response to another person’s actions. The elements required to prove an IIED claim include ambiguous terminology that have resulted in wide-ranging court decisions. IIED, also designated as the tort of outrage, must include conduct that goes beyond all reasonable bounds of human decency. Because case law has not provided an exact definition of outrageous behavior, the courts must decide if the behaviors are severe enough to win an IIED claim. In review of successful case law, the wins demonstrate that individuals in a civilized society should not have to deal with emotionally distressing, outrageous behaviors. On the other hand, drawing the line between “extreme and outrageous” emotionally distressing behaviors and finding potential solutions outside the legal environment is not an easy matter.

Conclusions and Potential Solutions

When dealing with emotionally distressing coaching behaviors, an individual should review legal precedent and seek legal counsel if the behavior is deemed as severe and outrageous. Already formulating that one cannot control the coach, there are two potential solutions if legal action is not a viable option: to quit and do something else or to find a way to deal with the abusive situation. Choosing to remain on the team and deal with an unfortunate situation is not easy. It has already been determined that to make an IIED claim, outrageous conduct does not include mere insults, indignities, threats, annoyances, and petty oppressions. A coach that utilizes tactics such as these is truly not worth the accompanying mental anguish, yet many individuals love the sport so intensely that they cannot dream of quitting. If this is the case, one must turn to positive psychology to find a way to handle emotional distress that will inevitably be encountered.

Individuals may not be able to control the coach, but they can control personal reactions to bad coaching behaviors. Athletes (and often their parents) need to develop a mental strategy to cope with emotionally distressing situations. There are two strategies that can be employed to develop a personal mental plan. The two tactics are: 1) determining psychological type for self-understanding, development, and problem solving; and 2) utilizing cognitive strategies by accepting the importance of positive expectations and implementing positive self-talk.

The first part of the mental strategy is to determine psychological type by taking the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). The MBTI is a self-report questionnaire designed to provide feedback to enhance an understanding of personal self, motivations, natural strengths, and potential areas for growth (Myers, 1998). The MBTI, based on Carl Jung’s theory of personality and further developed by the mother/daughter team of Myers and Briggs, provides an individual with one of sixteen personality preference scales. Each of the sixteen types consist of a four letter personality preference code which can help an athlete understand the following: the way one prefers to focus their attention and energy; the way one prefers to take in information; the way an individual prefers to make decisions; and how one orients themselves to the external world. With this information, athletes can learn more about themselves. The type code allows an athlete to see their characteristics, view how others may see them, and identify areas of potential growth. In a perfect world, it would be nice to know the personality type of the coach or coaches to gain a better understanding of the characteristics frequently associated with his or her type. Even without this information, one can study the sixteen types and attempt to match characteristics of the coach with a particular type. Empowered with this information, athletes can better understand themselves and in the process begin to understand others around them – specifically to recognize and attempt to understand the coach’s behavior. Having this type of insight won’t completely take away the emotional distress factor, but it might soften the edges of the hurtful words or behaviors.

The second part of the mental strategy is concerned with cognitively appreciating the importance of positive expectations and utilizing positive self-talk. To prove the essence of positive expectations, Waitley (1978), conducted interviews with “winners” from various fields of endeavor. He then grouped the characteristics of the “winners” into categories of five “attitude qualities” which include positive self-expectancy, self-image, self-control, self-esteem, and self-awareness. These five “attitude qualities” are found within the self-talk of winners – no matter what circumstances come their way. With practice, athletes can internalize all five positive attitudes, which in turn affect positive expectations of self. To restate once again, athletes may not be able to control their coaches, but they can control their own state of mind when dealing with bad behaviors by incorporating cognitive strategies. In emphasis, Singer (1980) claims that implementing a cognitive (or mental) strategy can favorably affect one’s emotions, such as reduce anxiety, focus attention, maintain concentration, and cope with stress.

Concluding Statements

The tort of intentional infliction of emotional distress (IIED), otherwise known as the tort of outrage, is a viable legal option. Although the tort is not set up to handle frivolous claims, it is frustrating that the majority of emotional distress is not compensable. To be subjected to bad coaching behaviors with very little opportunity for recourse is extremely maddening to all involved. Is one supposed to chalk up the negative experience as a good life lesson – teaching the principle that “life’s not fair?” Is one supposed to simply deal with bad behaviors until something drastic happens like the untimely death of Max Gilpin? Other than the legal option of claiming IIED for extreme and outrageous activities, there are only two other viable solutions: to quit the sport and attempt to move on; or dig down deep into the trenches and develop a mental strategy in an effort to maintain sanity. Regrettably, either option is heartbreaking when one is submersed in a very unfortunate situation.

References

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Efros, et al., v. Giles, 07-084713-CK (2008).

Ehline, M. P. (n.d.). What is ‘intentional infliction of emotional distress’ under tort law?
Retrieved July 24, 2009, from http://www.videojug.com/expertanswer/intentional-torts-2/what-is-intentional-infliction-of-emotional-distress

FindLaw. (n.d.). High school coach David Stinson indicted in Max Gilpin’s heat
stroke death. Retrieved July 28, 2009, from http://commonlaw.findlaw.com/2009/01/high-school-coach-david-stinton-indicted-in-max-gilpins-heat-stroke-death.html

Free Online Law Dictionary. (n.d.). Tort law: Legal definition of tort law. Retrieved July 27, 2009 from: http://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/p/Tort%20Law
Intentional Torts, (n.d.). Intentional infliction of emotional distress (IIED) tort in Texas.
Retrieved July 25, 2009 from, http://www.texas-opinions.com/law-IIED-intentional-infliction-of-emotional-distress

Legal Aid Society of San Francisco. (n.d.). Intentional infliction of emotional distress in the
workplace: Your legal rights. Retrieved July 24, 2009, from http://www.las-elc.org/IntentInflictionEmotDistress.pdf

LSU Law Center’s Medical and Public Health Law Site. (n.d.). Elements of intentional infliction
of emotional distress. Retrieved July 24, 2009, from http://biotech.law.lsu.edu/courses/tortsF01/IIEM.htm

Myers, I. B. (1998). Introduction to type: A guide to understanding your results on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (6th ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc.
Personal Injury Law. (n.d.).What is intentional infliction of emotional distress? Retrieved July
24, 2009, from http://www.quizlaw.com/personal_injury_law/ what_is_intentional_inflicti.php

Rapp, G. (2008, May 29). Intentional tort of last resort alert: Clemens adds “outrage”
claim to McNamee suit. Retrieved June 21, 2009, from http://sports-law.blogspot.com/2008_05_01_archive.html

Russell, F. (2008, April 1). Reformulating outrage: A critical analysis of the problematic tort of IIED. Vanderbilt Law Review. Retrieved June 21, 2009, from
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Simon, E. (2009, May 11). Important win against employer for inflicting serious emotional distress. Ellen Simons’ Employee Rights Post. Retrieved July 24, 2009, from
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Singer, R. N. (1980). Motor learning and human performance (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan.

Truman, K. (2009, January 26). Pleasure Ridge Park football coach charged with reckless
homicide. Retrieved July 25, 2009, from http://www.injuryboard.com/printfriendly.aspx?id=256070

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Michigan Lawyers Weekly.

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U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-25T19:35:53-06:00October 5th, 2009|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

An Ethnographic Study of the Skateboarding Culture

Linda Moore; Senior Director, Business Administration; ESPN Productions Inc.

Abstract

Skateboarders are often seen as outsiders. However, understanding the culture of skateboarding can be insightful for politicians, adults, or scholars who seek to develop stronger relationships with young people who participate in skateboarding (Freeman & Riordan, 2002). In this ethnographic study, skateboarding culture is described through observations of professional skateboarders in a segment of the DVD, Planes, Trains and Skateboards. The findings suggested themes of acceptance, energy and drive, concern for safety, self-expression of style, and progression. Leaders who understand the culture of skateboarding may be able to communicate more effectively with the younger generation.

Introduction

Ethnography describes a culture and provides an understanding of that culture from an insider’s perspective (Neuman, 2003). Through observation, inferences can be made from how members of a culture act, speak, or think within specific cultural contexts to give meaning to actions and behaviors of the group. This study uses an ethnographic design to identify characteristics of the skateboarding culture by documenting characteristics, action, and behaviors of participants in the video compilation of Planes, Trains and Skateboards.

World Cup Skateboarding captured the essence of competitive skateboarding in the 2004 release of Planes, Trains and Skateboards from video recorded at X Games X in Los Angeles, CA. Through observation of communication styles and cultural artifacts manifested in the video, the culture of competitive skateboarding is described and generalizations to the overall culture that envelopes skateboarding are discussed. From the discussion of the video content, inferences are synthesized to provide a greater understanding of the skateboarding culture.

Population, Sampling, Data Collection Procedures, and Rationale

Planes, Trains and Skateboards is a video compilation of skateboarding events held around the world during 2004. Each of the 15 chapters highlights the social scene enveloping the competition and the athletes who participated. For purposes of this analysis, Chapter 13, X Games X, which includes skateboard street, vert best trick, and big air competitions, was selected because of the variety of genres included in the compilation and the competitive nature of the event.

The population for this study consists of professional skateboarders participating in skateboard competition at X Games X in Los Angeles, CA. While not all skateboarders become professional athletes, the sample for this study included street skaters, vert skaters, and big air skaters. Street skaters are those who predominantly skate on streets and other public domains where concrete and obstacles offer an interesting playground. Vert skaters are those who skate on a half-pipe, usually made of wood or concrete shaped like half of a pipe cut through the diameter. Big air skaters are the newest genre to the culture as these athletes are the most experienced group of skaters and choose a mega-ramp that rises as high as seven stories in the air from which they “drop-in” to gain enough speed to carry them across the bottom, up the opposite side, and above the ramp by as much as 15 or 20 feet above the rim. While each group of skaters is different, by identifying the similarities between them, a greater understanding of the skateboarding culture is gleaned.

Data was collected through an ethnographic analysis, noting unspoken language, behaviors, and cultural artifacts such as dress, hair, and body art. A description of what is observed in the video is detailed. As the competition begins, a standing room only crowd is observed. No whistles, balls, referees, or coaches can be found. Instead, the competition is on the sidewalk behind Staples Center in downtown Los Angeles. Just before the competition, one athlete is break dancing for the crowd. Another is signing autographs. One athlete hides his face from the camera as his family sports hats that look like wedges of cheese in the background. Another athlete dances to the music as he eyes the young, thin, attractive girls in the front row of the crowd. From these observations, inferences can be made to the general population of skateboarders that might suggest that skateboarders are more concerned about having fun and connecting with the audience than winning competitions.

Validity and Bias

Bias is inherent in qualitative research (Neuman, 2003). In particular, because the researcher is the instrument, personal background, interests, and point of view become part of the analysis. In this study, the researcher has an interest in understanding the culture of skateboarding and has participated in the action sports industry for 13 years. Yet these years have not provided an opportunity to discover how skateboarders think or why these athletes do what they do. While bias cannot be erased, bias is identified as a mediating factor that may influence the results of this study.

The single source of data for this study limits the validity. However, repeated observations of the same participants improved the internal validity, or interpretability of the data (Newman, 2003). Further research may be necessary to confirm the external validity, or generalizability of the findings (Newman).

Data Analysis

Data from this ethnographic study was collected by watching the DVD repeatedly to identify the demographic characteristics of the skateboarding participants, including athletes, judges and announcers who were presented in the footage, then observing behaviors and appearances from which meaningful inferences could be drawn.

Agar (2006) suggests that ethnography is about the study of human differences through the identification of similarities. By studying the similarities among the participants in the video, the researcher identified differences between these participants to draw meaning that connects these participants to outsiders such as the researcher.

To understand what was happening in the video, the researcher looked to identify “rich points” or patterns across certain kinds of people in certain situations (Agar, 2006, p. 5). After preliminary notes were taken and reviewed, the DVD was again reviewed repeatedly to confirm the original notes and to make additional observations. Special attention was given to communication and action that took through participant interaction and crowd responses. Through a careful analysis of participant characteristics, participant interaction, and crowd responses, explanations for the overall increase in participation in skateboarding and the rationale for increased acceptance of skateboarding by mainstream sports enthusiasts can be garnered.

Findings

The data from this study were recorded and analyzed for patterns within observed responses and actions. Demographic observations were made. Actions and behaviors were then analyzed. The analysis revealed several themes: acceptance, energy and drive, concern for safety, self-expression of style, and progression.

The demographic characteristics revealed limited diversity among the professional skateboarders who participated in the study competition. Of the 30 participants, 10% were female and 90% were male. 73% were observed to be of Caucasian ethnicity, while 16% were observed to be of Hispanic origins and 1% of African American ethnicity. Age ranged from early teens to late thirties and appeared to have some correlation to the discipline as younger skaters tended to be involved in street skating, while the older, more experienced skaters dominated the vert and big air disciplines. The demographic characteristics are presented in Table 1.

Table 1
Demographic Characteristics of Skateboarding Participants

Skater #	Discipline	Gender	Observed Ethnicity	Observed Age
1	Street	Female	Caucasian	Teens
2	Street	Female	Caucasian	Teens
3	Street	Female	Hispanic	Teens
4	Street	Male	Caucasian	Twenties
5	Street	Male	Caucasian	Early Teens
6	Street	Male	Hispanic	Twenties
7	Street	Male	Caucasian	Late 20s
8	Street	Male	Hispanic	Late 20s
9	Street	Male	Caucasian	Late teens
10	Street	Male	Caucasian	Twenties
11	Street	Male	Caucasian	Twenties
12	Street	Male	African American	Twenties
13	Street	Male	Caucasian	Twenties
14	Vert	Male	Caucasian	Twenties
15	Vert	Male	Caucasian	Twenties
16	Vert	Male	Hispanic	Twenties
17	Big Air	Male	Caucasian	Twenties
18	Big Air	Male	Caucasian	Thirties
19	Big Air	Male	African American	Thirties
20	Big Air	Male	Caucasian	Thirties
21	Big Air	Male	Caucasian	Thirties
22	Big Air	Male	Caucasian	Thirties
23	Big Air	Male	Caucasian	Thirties
24	Big Air	Male	Caucasian	Late Thirties
25	Big Air	Male	Caucasian	Thirties
26	Big Air	Male	Hispanic	Late Twenties
27	Big Air	Male	Caucasian	Late Twenties
28	Big Air	Male	Caucasian	Twenties
29	Big Air	Male	Caucasian	Late Twenties
30	Big Air	Male	Caucasian	Twenties

Regardless of gender, discipline, ethnicity, or age, the participants in this study routinely embraced each other, supported each other by showing encouragement and appreciation, and showed no signs of negative emotion toward other participants, despite the fact that prize money was on the line. This lack of negative emotions infers an inclusionary construct within the skateboarding culture.

Another central theme of this study was the energy and drive of the participants. While each participant was competing, facial expressions suggested the presence of passion and determination, fun, excitement, and desire to do their best at that moment. Participants did not appear tired or winded, even at the conclusion of their turn in the competition rotation. Although the exact time of each run was not apparent from the video, many athletes continued to show energy by dancing, jumping, or engaging in other celebratory acts. Observed behaviors included applauding each other, dancing, smiling, and other congratulatory behaviors. The unique behaviors of participants and spectators, which were captured in the video, are included in Table 2.

Table 2

Unique Behaviors of Participants

Skater #	Unique Behaviors
4	Break dancing before competition
5	Smiling
6	Fans enjoying the run
9	Family supported participant by wearing shirts spelling out last name
10	Moved around the course, spectators applauded, many spectators filming the run
14	High-five with fellow competitor
15	Smiled, happy
16	Received congratulatory slap and hugged competitors on deck, started dancing to the music, showed medal to group of reporters following competition, hugged female reporter
17	Described Big Air Mega Ramp, suggests he’s lost money by betting on these competitions, but laughs as if he’s joking,
18	Gave advice to “hang on, you’ve got 4 tries, that’s it,” joked with camera
19	Moving things forward
21	Describes this as “history in the making” “gladiator skateboarders”
22	Making of “super heroes” today
23	Indicated he was “gearing up for getting slammed”
24	“Awesome,” “sick” suggests athletes must have guts to try this
25	Held small child on the medal stand and waived to crowd after winning gold medal, appeared very happy
26	Nervous, anxious look on face prior to taking jump
29	Skate competitors shown watching, enjoying competition
30	Smiled, happy, camera pan of crowd revealed jammed parking lot full of people cheering and applauding

While danger is inherent in most sports, the potential for falls in skateboarding appears quite high. Helmets, kneepads, elbow pads, wrist guards and gloves were observed in both the vert and big air disciplines. The use of safety equipment appeared to be routine for all competitors, suggesting a concern for safety.

The participants did not wear uniforms or jerseys that identified their team or sponsors. Rather, each participant had an individual sense of style that provided for self-expression. However, similarities in style suggest certain appearance constructs of the skateboarding culture. Comfortable attire such as baggy jeans and loose-fitting t-shirts that allow for movement were common among participants. Style appears to be important to members of the skateboarding culture, but style is not what everyone else is doing or wearing. Rather, style appears to be an expression of individuality. The presence of tattoos, body piercing, or other expressions of individuality could not be gleaned from the video in this study.

Finally, with the variety of disciplines within skateboarding, the theme of progression appears to play a prominent role. While street skating was the original discipline of early skateboarders back in the 1950s, the vert competition was introduced in the mid-1970s as skaters found empty swimming pools provided an interesting playground for skateboarding activities (Hayes, 2005). Not until X Games X was the big air discipline introduced as a competitive event. The progression of the sport through these disciplines suggests skateboarding is an evolving culture that pushes members to try new things, take bigger risks, and progress the sport to new levels.

Conclusions

Critics argue that the skateboarding culture represents a youth activity that embraces anti-establishment values in opposition to middle class norms and values inherent in traditional team sports (Kusz, 2003). However, popular culture can be a means of projecting social resistance, and skateboarding is no exception, despite originating under the Boy Scouts of America umbrella (Beal, 1995).

To outsiders, skaters are thought of as rebels, social deviants, or simply different. Participants are banned from public areas and signs are routinely posted prohibiting the activity (Nolan, 2003; Woolley & Johns, 2001). However, understanding the culture of skateboarding can be insightful for politicians, adults, or scholars who seek to develop stronger relationships with young people (Freeman & Riordan, 2002).

In a study of female skaters, participants described skateboarding as fun, adventurous, confidence building, and nonconformist with a casual, comfortable style (Kelly, Pomerantz & Currie, 2005). These same themes can be inferred from the current study. Even with the status of professional athlete, the subjects in this study were observed as happy, comfortable, and inclusive.

Skateboarding allows for individuality as rules are minimal and self-expression is encouraged. This freedom to be creative and express oneself through skateboarding activity can be a means of empowerment. Through the cultural values of inclusion, having fun, self-expression, and progression, participants can build confidence to become leaders. By understanding the culture of skateboarding, today’s leaders are in a better position to understand tomorrow’s leaders and develop communication styles to improve interaction between generations.

References

Agar, M. (2006, June). Culture: Can you take it anywhere? International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 5(2).

Beal, B. (1995). Disqualifying the official: An exploration of social resistance through the subculture of skateboarding. Sociology of Sport Journal, 12. Retrieved September 22, 2006, from EBSCOhost database.

Bostick, D. & Bostick, D. (Executive Producers) & Kanights, B. (Producer). (2004). Planes, trains and skateboards (DVD). United States: Come Together Productions.

Freeman, C. & Riordan, T. (2002). Locating skateparks: The planner’s dilemma. Planning, Practice & Research, 17(3).

Hayes, A. (2005). Dogtown and Z-Boys: Teaching the documentary. Screen Education, 40. Retrieved September 22, 2006, from EBSCOhost database.

Kelly, D. M., Pomerantz, S., & Currie, D. (2005, August). Skater girlhood and emphasized femininity: ‘you can’t land an ollie properly in heels’. Gender and Education,17 (3).

Kusz, K. (2003). BMX, extreme sports, and the White male backlash. In Brayton, S. (2005). “Black-Lash”: Revisiting the “White Negro” through skateboarding. Sociology of Sport Journal, 22. Retrieved September 22, 2006, from EBSCOhost database.

Neuman, W. L. (2003). Social research methods (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.

Nolan, N. (2003, November). The ins and outs of skateboarding and transgression in public space in Newcastle, Australia. Australian Geographer, 34(3).

Woolley, H. & Johns, R. (2001). Skateboarding: The city as a playground. Journal ofUrban Design, 6(2).

U.S. Sports Academy2013-11-25T19:36:13-06:00October 5th, 2009|Contemporary Sports Issues, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

A Study of the Participative Motivation, Satisfaction and Loyalty of the Members at the Taekwondo Training Hall in Taipei County

Chang Chia-Ming, Associate Professor, Department of Physical Education, National Chia-Yi University; Chen, Kuan-Chung, United States Sport Academy; Kelly E. Flanagan, D.S.M., Chair of Sport Studies, United States Sports Academy

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to explore the differences among the taekwondo training hall members’ demographic variables as they related to participative motivation, satisfaction, and loyalty. A secondary aim is to verify the cause and effect relationship of participative motivation, satisfaction, and loyalty. For this study, a total of 358 members were selected from 15 taekwondo training halls in Taipei County. The instruments utilized in this research include a participative motivation scale, a satisfaction scale, and a loyalty scale. The data were statistically analyzed utilizing descriptive statistics (including a frequency distribution percentage, the mean and the standard deviation), a t-test, a one-way ANOVA, the scheffe method and structural equation modeling. The results were as follows: (a) As it related to the demographics of the members at the taekwondo training halls in Taipei county, the descriptive statistics indicated that a majority of the members were males between 9-12 years old; their total family income was around NT 40,001~NT 60,000; and a majority of the members had practiced taekwondo for less than one year. (b) The results of the analysis of the member’s demographic variables showed that a member’s gender, age, and time spent learning taekwondo indicated statistically significant differences on his or her participative motivation and satisfaction. A member’s gender, age, family income, and time spent learning taekwondo also indicated statistically significant differences on his or her loyalty. (c) According to the analysis conducted by the structural equation modeling, participative motivation had a positive influence on satisfaction and loyalty, and satisfaction had a positive influence on loyalty. Based on these findings, the researchers have provided some suggestions for taekwondo training halls.
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U.S. Sports Academy2016-10-20T14:11:38-05:00October 5th, 2009|Sports Coaching, Sports Facilities, Sports Management, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off

Important Parameters of the Football Industry in Cyprus: Challenges and Opportunities

Nicos L. Kartakoullis and Andreas Theophanous,
University of Nicosia

Abstract

An in-depth study of the current football industry in Cyprus was undertaken to evaluate the financial situation of the first division football clubs, the competitive balance of the national league, the management practices of the football clubs and national league, and the negative effects of football hooliganism on the industry. Research involved both an extensive literature review of secondary sources from the Cyprus Sport Organization, the Cyprus Football Association, and the football clubs, as well as a qualitative data collection tool which included personal interviews and focus groups. Challenges and opportunities facing the football industry in Cyprus were identified.

Introduction

There is no doubt that football is the most popular sport worldwide. It is the king of sports. Because of the popularity of football all over the world on all continents, it is no surprise that on many occasions people address football as the “universal language.” According to Murphy, Williams, and Dunning (1992) “Soccer is, without any shadow of doubt, the world’s most popular sport.”

The hero of Liverpool FC, the late Bill Shankly, who managed to turn Liverpool Football Club into a big European football power, emphasized that football is a “more important matter than life or death.” It is true that “there appears to be something about the structure of soccer that gives it a very wide appeal in the modern world, an appeal that appears to be relatively independent to the level of development of countries, the socio-political character of the regimes by which they are ruled, their allegiances and the alliances that they are involved in” (Murphy, Williams, Dunning, 1992).

The Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), the world governing body of football, commissioned the social research company in Zurich, Lamprecht and Stamm SE BAG, to conduct the FIFA Big Count 2006. A survey that was conducted through the 207 national football associations worldwide, in which data was gathered on the numbers of participating players in football at all levels. The results of the survey are impressive indicating how big football is worldwide. The president of FIFA, Joseph S. Blatter, in view of the published results of the survey stated, “Football’s popularity remains undiminished and is actually increasing.”

Some of the impressive findings of the 2006 survey as presented in a press release by FIFA on June 12, 2007, indicated the following:

· The overall number of 265 million male and female players is almost 10 percent higher than the number recorded six years ago (242 million). Of the 265 million, 26 million, or around 10 percent, are women.

· Since 2000, the number of registered male and female footballers has increased by around 23 percent to over 38 million.

· The growth in women’s football is particularly striking, with the number of registered players up 54 percent to 4.1 million, while the number of registered players in the men’s game has likewise seen an increase of 21 percent to 34.2 million.

· The number of unregistered occasional players, which was first recorded in the previous Big Count study, is up seven percent to 226 million.

· There are now a combined total of over one million futsal and beach soccer players (both male and female).

· The number of clubs (301,000) is similar to the figure recorded in 2000. That said, the total number of teams (1.7 million) has increased by approximately 200,000.

The FIFA president further noted, “If you count the relatives and close friends of active participants in football, who share in their passion for the game as fans and support them in other ways, the total number is even more impressive: Well over a billion people worldwide are involved in football at all levels of society and across all borders.” Based on the figures provided, FIFA stated that a grand total of 270 million people, male and female players, which represents four percent of the world’s population, are involved in one way or another in football. According to the FIFA press release, it is not only the television audiences and match attendances that are increasing but the number of people playing football on all continents. It is not only popular as a spectator sport but as a participant sport as well. It is worth noting that based on FIFA records, out of these 270 million people, 99.8% are amateur football players with 80% being youth players.

With all those figures available, the FIFA president is happy to state, “Football is truly the world’s game. It is played in every conceivable place, on every corner of the world by men, women, boys, and girls of all ages. It is played in narrow streets, in muddy fields, and in packed stadiums on grass, concrete, earth, and sand. Any differences between people fade away in its unifying light.”

The figures and all this related information display a picture of football’s development worldwide. However, besides this success in football’s development, which is proven by the increasing numbers, there are critics of the work of FIFA. Sugden and Tomlinson (2005) noted that FIFA has transformed itself from an international nongovernment organization into a business international nongovernment organization. FIFA has been increasingly profit driven and presents one of the leading examples of the professionalization and commercialization of modern sports. They define this as “sport’s emergence at the heart of the worldwide cultural industries” (Sugden and Tomlinson, 2005). Thus, Sugden and Tomlinson were willing to “… show what happens in an international nongovernmental organization when the pursuit of profit overwhelms an ethic of service” and in view of this they presented an analysis of the crisis in world football (Sugden & Tomlinson, 2005).

Along the same lines as this critical approach and perspective, Allison set a series of questions trying to set sports in the right perspective in this era of globalization; he emphasized, “… how worried should we be about the nature of power in international organizations?” (Allison, 2005).

There is no doubt that “football has been transformed over the years to a gigantic commercial operation” (Boyopoulos & Milakas, 2005). However, besides this truth, nobody can underestimate the cultural significance of football as elaborated by Norbert Elias in his civilizing process theory.

On the one hand, nobody can argue the fact that football has become commercialized and is big business now, as noted above; on the other, nobody should overemphasize the problems and challenges of the game by ignoring its power and what it can offer to different societies.

Sports generally, and football precisely, presents unique situations whereby we have the coexistence of profit making on the one hand, and nonprofit making and voluntary organizations on the other. In the football world, there is this uniqueness where profit making is an activity that is conducted in many instances by nonprofit or voluntary organizations where they all have common goals and objectives (Capling, 2004; Murphy et. al. 2001; Rachman, 2002).

In many instances, the financial dimensions of football are increasing without actually leading to profitability for the football clubs. In fact, all over the world, and in Cyprus too, many football clubs are facing severe financial problems. Although, there are occasions where the big football clubs in different nations are profitable (Capling, 2004; Deloitte, 2005; Booth, 2004; Rachman, 2002).

The finances of football clubs for many years and in many instances where not made public for many various reasons. In many situations, proper financial records were not kept, and in many countries, this presented a chaotic situation where records and information were not readily available (Kartakoullis, 2005). The introduction of the UEFA club licensing system by the Union des Associations Europeenes de football (UEFA), the European governing football body, assisted in many instances and actually contributed to the sorting of the finances of football clubs in Europe as clubs were forced to prepare financial statements, accounts, and budgets to be submitted to their national football associations; otherwise, they would not be granted permission to compete in national and European competitions.

Purpose of the Study

Football is an international cultural phenomenon which is currently characterized by two major challenges: professionalization and commercialization.

The purpose of this study was to examine specific parameters of the football industry in a small country, Cyprus, where there are certain unique characteristics. The specific parameters addressed were the financial situation of the first division football clubs, the competitive balance of the national league, and management practices in the football industry. What major challenges exist in the football industry of a small country such as Cyprus, away from this globalized form football is taking with the two major characteristics of professionalization and commercialization? What are the challenges facing such an industry away from huge contracts, profitable television rights, sponsorships, and so many vested interests, as one can see them in the international football arena?

The Republic of Cyprus became an independent state in 1960. It became a member of the United Nations in 1960, of the Council of Europe in 1961, and of the European Union in 2004. It has an area of 9,521 square kilometers and a population of approximately 800,000. Since 1974, it has been de facto divided. Efforts to solve this problem in Cyprus and reunify the island have not been successful yet. Nicosia (Lefkosia in Greek; Lefkosa in Turkish) is the capital city.

Three geographic characteristics of Cyprus have determined much of its fate: location, size, and the fact that it is an island. It is located at a strategic position in the eastern Mediterranean, at the crossroads of three continents. Its strategic location, long exposed coastline, and small size always made it an attractive and easy target for outsiders. Its history and demography reflect the ebb and flow of peoples and powers in the region. In the course of its long history, Cyprus has been controlled by most of the major powers that had interest in, or sought control of, the Middle East. The list of its successive rulers include the Egyptians, Greeks, Phoenicians, Asssy6rians, Persians, Ptolemies, Romans, Byzantines, Franks, Venetians, Ottoman Turks, and British. It gained its independence from Britain in 1960 (Joseph, 2000).

Cyprus has been considered a football-loving nation, arising from the fact that football competitions draw good attendance in Cyprus as well as from the fact that it is extensively covered in the media. It is not surprising for example that when the two big football teams of the country play against each other, they attract crowds of more than 25,000 people, which is indeed large, bearing in mind the small size of the country. This fact is further reinforced by the results of the football survey (2005-2006), conducted on behalf of the Cyprus Football Association by the Centre for Leisure, Tourism, and Sports Research and Development. The results of the research clearly indicated that Cyprus is a football-loving nation. For example, the fact that 77% of men aged between 21-70 years old support a football club, and another 20% who do not support a club, still follow football in Cyprus and are well informed about the results of the national league, clearly displays there is great interest. Additionally, the fact that 16,000 kids are registered and play football in football academies all over the island displays this love for the game.

Method

A combination of methods has been used to gather the material required to analyze the football industry in the country. Thus, as a first step, all related information was collected from the Cyprus Sport Organization, the Cyprus Football Association, and the first division football clubs in Cyprus. The task of collecting information for the football clubs was not as hard and difficult as initially predicted, as this was already done by the National Football Association, who collected all related material for the UEFA club licensing scheme. However, a review of available material was definitely not enough for such a purpose. That was only one aspect of this research.

Participants

In view of this, personal interviews and focus groups were conducted in the attempt to collect as complete and as accurate information as possible. Interviews were conducted with the presidents or secretaries general of all 14 footballs clubs in the first division of the national league, the professional clubs in Cyprus. This was done in order to collect qualitative data which was going to complement the material already collected in the first phase of the research. Qualitative data was useful in this respect in gaining additional information in relation to the issue under investigation. Qualitative data according to Straus and Corbin (1990) is “any kind of research that produces findings not arrived at by means of statistical procedures or other means of quantification.” Qualitative interview studies are usually conducted with small samples (14 in this case) and the “aim is usually to gather an authentic” understanding of people’s experiences (attitudes, knowledge, beliefs about football in Cyprus in this case) and it is believed that open ended questions are the most effective route towards this end” (Silverman, 1993). Thus, this method involved an open ended interview study which encouraged the top decision makers of the football clubs in Cyprus to offer their own attitudes, knowledge, definitions and understanding of the football industry.

Design and Procedure

Two focus groups were utilized as the means to collect data for the analysis of the football industry. For Morgan (1988), focus groups are basically group-oriented discussions that rely on interaction within the group based on the topic that the moderator supplies. The advantage is that through focus groups, the moderator assists, especially at the first stages of the interaction, by providing information that could be helpful to participants in placing the focus group in context.

According to Morgan (1988) focus groups are basically group interviews; they rely on interaction within the group, based on the topic that the researcher supplies; with the researcher taking the role of a moderator. Furthermore, Morgan (1988) notes that focus groups can be used as a supplement for collecting data when using either qualitative or quantitative methods. Additionally, focus groups can be used as follow-up research to clarify findings in the other data collected, but more importantly, according to Morgan (1988) the goal in using focus groups is to get closer to participants’ understandings of the researcher’s topic. In view of this, the use of the focus groups in this case provided a valuable insight into the variables examined for the football industry. Focus groups are thus helpful in investigating what participants think, uncovering why participants think as they do, crucial in the attempt being made to investigate the perspectives analyzed above. There are both strengths and weaknesses of focus groups as a setting in which to collect qualitative data; in this particular case the use of focus groups was considered appropriate in supplementing the data already collected. Additionally, focus groups were useful to conduct as they produced valuable data from group interaction on the specific topic under examination; a focus group can delve deeper as participant’s contributions can trigger further comments of other participants. Two focus groups were conducted; each group consisted of six persons (members of executive committees of football clubs, football players, referees, coaches, sports journalists, sponsors, supporter’s clubs, and representatives of the Cyprus Football Association) under the moderation of Dr. Andreas Theophanous, who has experience of more than 20 years in qualitative research. The focus was on obtaining a good representative sample of persons associated with the football industry in Cyprus. The focus group sessions lasted for almost two hours each, and the data collected was then analyzed using the coding technique of content analysis. Thus, a series of categories or coding frames have been developed in relation to the finances of the clubs, the governance and management of the clubs, the competitive balance of the league, and the major problems that the industry is facing today.

Analysis or coding of qualitative data represents the operations by which data are broken down, conceptualized, and put back together in new ways; it is the central process by which theories are built from data (Straus and Corbin, 1990). This technique entails defining a series of categories of answers in which the researcher is interested (Breakwell, 1990). In addition, according, to Breakwell (1990), if the researcher does not wish to push responses into categories because this loses some of the individuality of the original statements, then content analysis can be used in a different way whereby in the report produced of the findings there are lots of quotations which will show the depth of the opinions expressed. More precisely, for analyzing the data gathered in this section, a classification system or coding was used where responses were classified in schemes using coding frames.

Results

Based on the data collected, it is evident that football clubs in Cyprus have four major sources of revenue (M. Gavrielides, A. Michaelides, D. Seraphim, personal communications, April 10, 2007). This include the income from tickets sold for the home matches, the television rights, membership fees and financial support from friends of the clubs, and commercial activities including sponsorship. The expenses of the football clubs are usually more than their income, and this was actually identified as the major cause of the financial problems that football clubs are currently facing in Cyprus during the focus groups (A. Michaelides, personal communication, March 20, 2007).

The major expenses of the football clubs involve salaries to the football players, coaches, and administrative staff, accommodation and board when the club is traveling for away games, transfer fees, and expenses for the organization of matches. (K. Koutsokoumnis, personal communication, April 6, 2007). This issue with the salaries of players and coaches is addressed extensively in the discussion section that follows.

For securing confidentially, the budgets of the different clubs discussed in the focus groups could not be presented separately, but Table 1 provides the total budgets of the 14 first division clubs for the 2004-2005 season in terms of their income and expenditures. For the purpose of analysis, the 14 teams are divided into two groups: the first group is comprised of the five largest teams in the country, and the second group includes the remaining nine teams. It became clear from diligent examination and discussion of the budgets submitted by all 14 first division clubs that most of the teams will have difficulty meeting the criteria of the UEFA club licensing scheme, which prescribes balanced income and expenditures of club members. From the study of the budgets submitted, as well as from the analysis of the data collected through the interviews and the focus groups, it appears that most of the budgets are over-ambitious. Additionally, the profit and loss accounts of the clubs were diligently studied. In most cases, it appeared that there was an over-estimation of expected income for the clubs.

Eight major points were identified by the research team in relation to the financial situation of the clubs in Cyprus.

· The 14 clubs of the first division submitted in their budgets their incomes for the period under examination, and total incomes for all clubs were calculated at Euro 17,530,250, which corresponds to Euro 1,252,404, for each club. The biggest income declared by any club was Euro 2,853,364, and the lowest income declared was Euro 744,319

· Total expenditure was calculated at Euro 17,629,349, which corresponds to Euro 1,259,239, for each club. The biggest expenditure declared by a club was Euro 2, 392,004 and the lowest was Euro 744,319.

· Six clubs declared that they were expecting losses in the period under investigation; while the other eight clubs expected to have a profit.

· The biggest profit to be made was estimated at Euro 640,725, and this was by a club which by the end of the season was relegated to the second division.

· Paying the salaries of players, foreign and domestic, and coaches consumed 75% of every club’s budget.

· From the data gathered, it was clear that foreign players were paid better salaries than the domestic players.

· Season tickets contributed an average of 10% of the total income for the clubs. The highest contribution from season tickets to total income was 20%, and the lowest was 1%.

· The television rights for the period under examination were calculated to Euro 934,177, which represented 5.3% of the total income of clubs.

The government of the Republic of Cyprus acknowledges the importance of football in Cypriot society. In view of this, the government has provided different forms of financial support to the sport. The Cyprus Sports Organization, which is the semi- governmental organization in charge of sports, has provided annual financial support to the Cyprus Football Association which comes to Euro 4,613,223 per year. However, in view of the financial problems of the football clubs in the country and in the attempt by the government to assist the clubs to get through this financial crisis, the government decided two years ago to provide a grant of Euro 10,251,608 over a four year period. Additionally, the Cyprus Sport Organization returns to the individual football clubs a total sum of Euro 717,612 per year, which represents taxes collected on gate income as well as community taxes (T. Christofides, personal communication, April 10, 2007). Furthermore, another amount of Euro 683,440 per year is given by the Sports Organization to pay the police forces in charge of security during the football matches (K. Papakosta, personal communication, March 15, 2007).

From the qualitative data gathered, it emerged that there was a consensus among the different parties involved in the football industry that there are three major challenges facing football in Cyprus. Football violence, bad governance and management of clubs, and prejudice against referees and officials are major challenges that the industry is facing, and although there is potential for further development, these problems do not allow the industry to grow to its full potential. (K. Zivanaris, personal communication, April 10, 2007). Peristianis, Kapardis, Loizou, Fakiolas, and Puloukas (2002) noted that the football industry in Cyprus is facing a major crisis in the face of football hooliganism, which can destroy the sport if this is not controlled. It is an ongoing problem that has not been controlled for years now and can lead to the financial collapse of the industry (Peristianis et al, 2002; Aristotelous & Pouloucas, 1996).

Another major issue that was addressed in the focus groups was the fact that there is no competitive balance in the national league, which poses a serious threat to the football industry. (T. Antoniou, K. Malekkos, C. Constantinou, C. Theodotou, personal communications, 12 April, 2007). The clubs are split into two groups: the five large ones in the first group and the other nine in the second group, which represent the weak teams struggling for survival. Out of the five clubs in the first group, three of those, namely APOEL, OMONIA and ANORTHOSIS, are the only ones that compete for the national championship each year. This has been the case for years now, and this competitive imbalance leads to a reduction of interest in the football industry (L. Kyriakou, personal communication, March 6, 2007). The results show, for example, that in the 2005-2006 season a total of 507,000 tickets were sold with 337,661, which represents 66% of the total, being utilized by the big five group. Table 2 shows the distribution of tickets during this season between the big and the weak teams of the league.

As Figure 1 identifies, the gap between the big and the weak teams in the sale of tickets is growing larger, which clearly presents the problematic situation existing because of this competitive imbalance in the national league.

Clubs are recruiting increasing numbers of foreign players, which increases their expenditures considerably, and this is causing Cypriot players to become a scarce commodity. (A. Michaelides, personal communication, April 10, 2007). Over a typical weekend with seven games on the national league calendar, approximately 190 players were used including substitutes during the 2005-06 seasons. Out of those 190 players, only 75 were Cypriots. This is a trend which is increasing every year; whereby last season, there was a point where there were teams starting without a single Cypriot player in the first eleven. Back in the 1992-1993 season, for example, the clubs in Cyprus used to have eight Cypriot players and only three foreigners in the starting eleven. (M. Gavrielides, personal communication, March 22, 2007). It is not surprising then that during that period, clubs were in a much better financial situation. In many countries, this is the trend, but in large developed countries, the football industry is big enough to cope with such expenses. In England, for example, the figures show that in the 1992-1993 season, only 10% of the players starting the games were not British. Conversely though, during this current season, only 37% of the players starting in the first eleven were British.

This is the issue actually. Clubs in small countries, like Cyprus, should not try to copy what is happening in other countries where the football industry is huge. The clubs’ officials need to be very realistic and down to earth when trying to build their teams. However, it is sad to identify that things are getting out of control according to the discussions held in the focus groups (L. Kyriakou, M. Gavrielides, T. Antreou, personal communications, April 10, 2007).

Discussion

Due to the popularity of football worldwide, the game has grown into a huge industry. Gratton and Henry (2001) estimated that in the big European countries, the football industry contributes 3% of the gross domestic product of those countries. According to Theophanous and Kartakoullis (2004), in Cyprus, the football industry contributes only 1.84% of the gross domestic product. This was actually expected as Cyprus is a small country. However, something which is alarming and risky as well is the fact that out of this 1.84%, which totals an amount of Euro 223,826,788, a great percentage of this, which comes to Euro 153,774,130, derives from the betting industry. Thus, the betting industry forms a substantial part of the football industry in the country, and this is something that for some years now is leading to various forms of problems and issues, the major of which is prejudice. In certain instances, rumors are spread concerning fixed matches and for referees that have been influenced by officials and players betting huge amounts of money on specific fixtures. This is a major issue for the football industry as the huge amounts of money spent in the betting industry have led to prejudice against the sport and, in turn, is destroying the image of the game in Cyprus. Similar sorts of problems with betting and fixed games have been identified in other countries all over the world.

In relation to the above issue, there are some additional complications and issues that are raised because of the betting situation. As noted in the results section, the clubs in the first division are split into two categories: the big five and the remaining small or weaker clubs. In view of the fact that 66% of the total income from games derives from the big five, a series of other questions are generated having to do with the influence that these clubs have in the decision-making processes, in the appointment of referees and in the allocation of television rights among the clubs. Television rights are handled by the Cyprus Football Association, which has developed a scheme for allocating income to the clubs. Again, in relation to this scheme of allocation, there are issues and concerns as it seems that the big five at some stage will start handling their own rights with television stations. The big five will secure good deals with the stations in the country, and the small ones will remain financially exposed, as they will lose a good portion of their incomes from the rights. The television rights totaled a sum of Euro 934,177, which represents almost 6% of the total income of the clubs. This is expected to rise to almost 12% of the total income of the clubs in the next two years, based on the new deals to be signed.

In relation to the distribution of income for football clubs, Back et al. (2004) estimated that the three major sources of income for football clubs should deliver roughly the same amounts. That comes to approximately 33% contribution to total income from each of the three categories of income: tickets, television rights, and commercial activities. For example, for Manchester United in the period of 1992-2002, this was calculated to 40% from tickets, 34% from television rights, and 26% from other commercial activities. When considering the distribution of income for the clubs in Cyprus, this is far from this equal distribution.

It should be noted that this issue of big and weak football clubs is not only a problem in Cyprus but a challenge for European football as well. In the Friedlander Report (2001) by the Centre for Research into Sport and Society of the University of Leicester, it is stated that the gap between the big clubs and the rest is ever growing bigger, so this is something that needs to be addressed.

Another major concern that is leading to great controversy has to do with the contracts and salaries of players. As can be deduced from the expenditures of the clubs (Table 1), 75% of the total expenses of the clubs were on salaries for players, coaches, and the support staff. The football players’ salaries came to 65% of expenditures. Each club in the first division has 25 registered professional players plus another six to ten persons in the support team (fitness trainer, physiotherapist, medical doctor, or administrators). The salaries of foreign players playing in Cyprus are considerably higher to those paid to Cypriot players; however, there is a great concern as to whether the contribution of foreign players to the team is greater than that of the Cypriots, thus justifying their bigger salaries. There are cases of foreign players in Cyprus who signed yearly contracts of Euro 341,720, which is really surprising for such a small industry. Along the same lines, there are coaches in Cyprus coming from Europe with contracts of Euro 256,290 per year, which is again on the very high side bearing in mind the size of the football industry in the country.

In relation to the above, Deloite (2004, 2005), in the annual review of football finances, noted that there is a tendency for decreasing the percentage of salaries on total expenditures. In the premier league, for example, in England, salaries represented 62% of total expenditures in 2001-2002, 61% in 2002-2003, and a further reduction to 60% in the following season. The same tendency for reducing salaries could be observed in other European countries. On the contrary, in Cyprus, the exact opposite is happening; there is an increasing tendency in this respect which is very dangerous indeed, when realizing that most of the clubs, if not all, are in a very bad financial situation. Thus, on the one hand, the clubs, due to their difficult financial situation, are seeking government support, but on the other, they are spending on salaries and contracts amounts with which the size of the industry in Cyprus cannot cope. The financial dimensions of the football industry in Cyprus are getting too big for such a small country, which is an alarming and dangerous trend for the future of the industry.

When all the financial statements and budgets of the clubs were examined from the documents submitted for the UEFA club licensing system, it was again obvious that clubs were in a bad financial situation. The great majority of clubs had big debts, and in order for them to meet the club licensing criteria, they postponed payments for years to come. For example, if a club had agreed to pay a player Euro 200,000 for a salary, they signed an agreement with the player stating that he is going to receive this money in the years to come. However, this is not solving the problem, but the problem is just postponed to the next few years.

The data from the qualitative analysis was enlightening in discovering the beliefs and opinions of the officials involved, top decision makers of the football clubs. It was indeed very interesting on the one hand, and very contradictory on the other, to identify from this research the commonly felt concern of all officials involved in football in Cyprus, and especially of the clubs’ top decision makers. There was a consensus that the expenditures of the clubs are growing, and the football industry is not currently ready to afford such a burden. However, beside this issue, which was overwhelmingly accepted, the club officials are doing absolutely nothing to resolve the problem. They clearly know the facts, they understand that football is in crisis, and still each year there is an average increase of 10% in the expenditures of the teams. This is indeed contradictory and illogical. The officials of the clubs, when asked why this happens, could not provide an answer. “There is no logic in football,” said one of the representatives of the big clubs. It should be noted that there are certain things that clubs can do to reduce their budgets, but the managers are still doing nothing about it. Actually, they are moving in the exact opposite direction.

The issue of overspending is something that can be observed in football clubs all over the world. Williams and Neatrour (2002) noted that clubs engage in this overspending practice by taking excess risks in view of the tough competition in football, and then, when things do not go the way they expect, in terms of performance, they cannot meet their financial obligations.

Football clubs in Cyprus are in crisis. This is proven by the results of this research, and it is justified in every respect. Clubs are currently in a struggle for survival as they have big debts that they need to repay. However, the situation is even more alarming considering the fact that clubs, despite this financial crisis, annually increase their budgets, with the result that the football industry is becoming too big and too risky for the country as well. Although clubs are operating on considerably big budgets, the structure they have still relies mostly on voluntary work without good governance or responsible management. Bad management and bad governance are major characteristics of clubs, and this was made clear in the qualitative data gathered. The clubs’ governing boards are comprised of volunteers, who for many different reasons become involved in the game. They are not always involved for the good of the Game but for many other different reasons. In view of this, when people become involved in the running of a club, they want immediate results, and they are not willing to plan for the future, as they wish to get the credit when they are on board. Thus, there is no strategic direction in the clubs, and, in view of this, no future plans for development. It is more of a day-to-day struggle for survival than anything else. There is an urgent need for better management of the football clubs and, additionally, a need for professionals to become involved in the football industry. The football industry in the country is getting too big for volunteers to run it. There is urgency for professionalism at all levels. Professionalization of the game is only happening with increasing numbers of professional players arriving from abroad; apart from this, there is no professionalization in any other respect.

Competitive balance refers to the ability of any of the football clubs in the national league to win the championship at the end of the season. Where there is competitive balance, clubs have equal chances to winning the league, and this makes the league very interesting as the outcome is not known. However, this is not the case in Cyprus, where at the beginning of each season, for years now, only three clubs are competing for the championship title. Thus, there are three favorites for the title and inevitably this leads to reduced interest on behalf of the fans, both for attending the matches as well as for watching them on TV. Additionally, it leads to a series of related problems with the remaining clubs that can not compete with the three favorites on equal terms; thus, the clubs are facing both competition and financial challenges. This limited interest at some stage during the football season by the indifferent clubs leads to problems and concerns with fixed matches and other related controversies. In view of this competitive imbalance, it is no surprise that out of 66 leagues organized in Cyprus, 50 were won by the three favorites. Nobody can question this issue, which was again extensively addressed by participants in the focus groups.

The issue of competitive balance in the national leagues is a major issue of concern for the football industry, as this is a critical success factor for the industry. In view of this, extensive work on the competitive balance of national leagues has been conducted by Holt et al. (2004), Michie and Oughton (2004 and 2005), Michie et al. (2004) and Forrest et al. (2005).

Despite the problems and issues identified, the club officials and top decision makers were still quite optimistic in relation to certain issues or opportunities that they identified. For instance, they identified the fact that an increasing number of big organizations and companies are interested in becoming involved in the industry as sponsors. This is quite true as there is a kind of new sponsorship culture that is developing lately on the island. The club officials emphasized this fact as they considered that this is a golden opportunity for the clubs to capitalize on. However, again this is an opportunity and a challenge. Sponsors are willing to join the football industry as long as they are going to get a good return. Gone are the days when companies donated money to football clubs in the form of charity (Kartakoullis, 2007). Consequently, the message is clear. On the one hand, there is potential in this area, but in order for the football clubs and the industry to utilize this, there is the need for expertise in the area.

Conclusion

The aim of the study was to gather data and examine important parameters of the football industry in Cyprus. This was the very first time that such an attempt has been made in Cyprus, which is indeed a football-loving nation. The research team approached the analysis from a purely critical perspective for the good of the game in Cyprus and for no other reason.

The football industry in Cyprus is facing a series of challenges that need to be addressed urgently. Bad management and governance are major characteristics in the industry, and it is no surprise that the football clubs, the major stakeholders in the industry, are in severe financial crisis. They have huge debts that they cannot pay; they have very high payrolls, which the industry can not handle in such a small country, and no strategy for development. Football hooliganism and the lack of competitive balance in the national league complete this picture of football in crisis in the small country of Cyprus. The financial dimensions, as denoted by the different parameters studied of the football industry, are growing, and the country cannot cope with it for the time being, as all football clubs are experiencing losses based on their profit and loss accounts studied. It is obvious that sports authorities need to invest in developing football and, precisely, in the management and structure of football; otherwise, the future of the game will be very gloomy and without hope.

Government support is good as provided, but this will not do much in saving the game, unless good management, governance, professionalism, and accountability are introduced at all levels of the game. In view of this, all those involved in the football industry need to realize the new opportunities and challenges in the world of sports and should introduce innovations at all levels of the game (Westerbeek & Smith, 2003). There is no doubt that all stakeholders in the football industry of Cyprus wish to upgrade football in this country, bringing it up to European standards. On the other hand, they should definitely have in mind all related concepts and issues in relation to this “Europeanization” of elite football (Martin, 2005). Above all, they need to be very realistic and down to earth, always having in mind the size of the football industry and the country as well.

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the Cyprus Football Association, the Football Clubs, and their officials in conducting this research. Additionally, the financial support of the Cyprus Football Association was greatly appreciated in conducting this research.

Table 1

Total Budgets for the Football Clubs 2005-2006

Income	€ 5 Big Clubs	€ 9 Weak Clubs	Total €	% of Budget
Tickets	4.421.957	2.184.865	6.606.823	37.69%
Commercial Activities	1.940.964	2.115.351	4.056.315	23.14%
Television Rights	452.779	481.398	934.177	5.33%
Funding	1.021.726	1.608.198	2.629.925	15.00%
Other	1.403.371	1.898.915	3.302.287	18.84%

Total	9.240.800	8.288.729	17.529.529	100.00%cmunisteri2009-03-13T14:37:00 Thousands & hundreds should be separated by commas not periods

Expenditure	€ 5 Big Clubs	€ 9 Weak Clubs	Total €	% of Budget
Foreign Players	2.843.174	2.709.558	5.552.732	31.50%
Cypriot Players	2.931.119	2.702.899	5.634.019	31.96%
Coaches	860.458	884.255	1.744.714	9.90%
Field Expenses	106.753	292.751	399.505	2.27%
Sports Equipment and Materials	29.046	230.046	259.092	1.47%
Transport	32.036	49.737	81.773	0.46%
Hotel Accommodation and Board	123.873	144.530	268.404	1.52%
Medical Expenses	90.555	160.523	251.078	1.42%
Field Security	12.643	59.288	71.932	0.41%
Transfer fees	3.417	321.217	324.634	1.84%
Expenses for European Competition	34.172	15.377	49.549	0.28%
Expenses for pre-season training abroad	129.853	203.569	333.423	1.89%
Complementary tickets	17.940	0	17.940	0.10%
Soccer Academies/Development Programmes	61.509	184.101	245.611	1.39%
Miscellaneous	1.475.777	919.724	2.395.501	13.59%

Total	8.752.331	8.877.582	17.629.913	100.00%

Table 2

Tickets Sold by the Big and the Weak Teams

Competition Season	Average no. of tickets	Average of the big teams	Average of the weak teams	Average of tickets sold without the big five
1996/97	1.387	5.065	882	541
1997/98	1.815	6.216	970	539
1998/99	1.911	6.581	955	414
1999/2000	1.813	6.130	941	454
2000/01	2.502	7.208	1.291	584
2001/02	2.553	7.720	1.258	491
2002/2003	3.091	8.458	1.624	707
2003/04	2.943	8.721	1.332	406
2004/05	2.790	7.655	1.563	652
Total	2.311	7.087	1.202cmunisteri2009-03-13T14:42:00 Thousands & hundreds separated by commas not periods	532

$Figure 1\$

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Comparison of 5km Running Performance after 24 and 72 hours of Passive Recovery

By: Andrew Bosak, Philip Bishop, J. Matthew Green, G Hawver, and Mike Iosia

Abstract

Recovery from a hard running effort determines when a runner can run at an intense level again. Overtraining is often caused by insufficient recovery, which ultimately hurts endurance performance. The number of recovery hours needed to sufficiently restore the body back to peak racing condition is unknown. The purpose of this study was to compare 5km running performance after 24 hours and 72 hours of recovery. Twelve well-trained runners (9 males and 3 females) completed two successive 5km performance trials on two separate occasions. Immediately following the baseline 5km trial, runners recovered passively for 24 hrs (R24) and 72 hrs of passive recovery (R72), and then performed a second 5km trial. The 5km time trial sessions were separated by 6-7 days of normal training and performed in a counterbalanced order. R24 (19:59 + 1.9 min) was significantly (p = 0.03) slower than baseline (19:49 + 1.9 min). However, no significant differences (p = 0.21) were found between R72 (19:30 + 1.5 min) and baseline (19:34 + 1.6 min). HRave for R24 (177.3 + 6.3 b/min) was the same as baseline (177.3 + 7.3 b/min), yet R72 HRave (177.9 + 6.3 b/min) was significantly higher (p = 0.04) than baseline (175.4 + 6.5 b/min). RPEend for R24 (19.5 + 0.8) was not significantly different (p = 0.39) than baseline (19.6 + 0.8), but R72 RPEend (19.8 + 0.6) was significantly (p = 0.01) greater than baseline (19.3 + 0.9). For the R24 trials, 9 participants ran a mean 17.4 + 12.1 secs slower and 3 participants ran a mean of 13.3 + 6.8 secs faster than baseline. During R72, three individuals ran a mean 10.3 + 5.7 secs slower, five individuals ran a mean 17.4 + 12.9 secs faster, and four individuals ran within 3.3 + 1.8 secs of their first run. Results indicate that 72 hrs of passive recovery, on average, permits maintenance of successive 5km time trial performance, yet individual variability existed regarding rate of decline of 2nd trial performance. Future research is needed to determine if a longer or shorter recovery time will maintain or improve 5km racing performance.

Introduction

Coaches and runners constantly strive to identify legal methods to improve runners’ performances. Factors such as tempo runs, hill repeats, long-slow distance days, striders and build-ups, intervals and repeats, dietary intake, and sleep patterns, are continually tested and adjusted to produce better performance. However, one factor often overlooked is recovery. Many runners feel that to race faster, they should have longer daily runs, run more miles per week, or train faster and harder. This often leads to overtraining, which hurts performance. Recovery from hard running efforts plays a vital role in determining when a runner can run at an intense level again (Fitzgerald, 2007).

Previous studies have focused on recovery from long endurance races such as marathons and ultra-marathons (Gomez et al., 2002; Martin & Coe, 1997; Noakes, 2003). Recovery from these endurance efforts revolves around repairing of damaged muscle fibers and replenishing glycogen stores (Fitzgerald, 2007; Gomez et al., 2002; Nicholas et al., 1997). In shorter duration endurance activities, such as a 5km (3.1 miles), 10km (6.2 miles) race, or hard training runs, Foss and Keteyian (1998) indicate that muscle and liver glycogen levels may be normalized 24 hrs after exercise, but muscle function may not be fully recovered and performance measures may be sub-optimal.

Former University of Oregon track coach Bill Bowerman first popularized the concept of hard/easy training, indicating that intense workouts such as an interval session, tempo run, or long run, should be followed the next day by an easy run (Dellinger & Freeman, 1984). Using Bowerman’s method, a runner would have an intense workout every 48 hrs to allow muscle function to be restored to normal (O’Conner & Wilder, 2001). Also, New Zealander Jack Foster indicated a runner should take one recovery day for every mile completed in a race [Brown & Henderson, 2002; Galloway, 1984; Henderson, 2000; Higdon, 1998; Sinclair, Olgesby, & Piepenburg, 2003). However, Henderson indicated that it may be better to take one easy day per kilometer (Brown & Henderson, 2002; Henderson, 2000). Although, Bowerman, Henderson, & Foster’s statements about recovery days after a race or hard effort seem reasonable, the appropriate recovery duration as well as what is considered “easy” has not been previously studied.

Gomez et al. (2002) determined that strength and power capabilities of distance runners after a 10km race normalized after 48 hrs of passive recovery. Thus, it is likely that participants would be fully recovered, which would allow them to maximize performance during another 10km race. Because 5km is half the distance of 10km, it may be logical to presume only 24 hrs of passive recovery may be needed, instead of the required 48 hrs for 10km. However, this hypothesis was not supported when we tested two distance runners of above average abilities in a pilot study as the participants were not able to achieve similar 5km performance after 24 hrs of passive recovery. Twenty-four hours may not be a sufficient amount of time for the dissipation of muscle fatigue or soreness (Brown & Henderson, 2002). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare 5km running performance after 24 hrs of passive recovery versus 72 hrs of passive recovery.

Methods

Participants

Participants for the study were 12 well trained male (n = 9) and female (n = 3) runners currently engaged in rigorous training. Runners from the local road running and track club, local triathlon competitors, and former competitive high school and college runners, were recruited by word of mouth. Participant inclusion criteria included: (a) Subjects must have been currently involved in a distance running training program, (b) Had previously run 16-22 min for male runners or 18-24 min for a female runner for 5km, (c) Currently averaging at least 20-30 miles (running) per week, (d) Have previously completed at least five 5km road or track races, (e) Have a VO2max of at least 45 ml/kg/min (females) or 55 ml/kg/min (males), and (f) Provided sufficient data (from running history questionnaires, Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaires, and Health Readiness Questionnaires) that reflected good health.

Participants completed a short questionnaire regarding their running background, racing history, and current training mileage. All participants were volunteers and signed a written informed consent outlining requirements and potential risks and benefits resulting from participating.

Procedures

Participants were assessed for age, height, body weight, and body fat percent using a 3-site skinfold technique (Brozek & Hanschel, 1961; Pollock, Schmidt, & Jackson, 1980). Participants were fitted with a Polar Heart Rate Monitor and then completed a graded exercise test (GXT) to exhaustion lasting approximately 12-18 minutes. VO2max, heart rate (HR), and Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE) were collected every minute.

All GXTs were completed on a Quinton 640 motorized treadmill. The test began with a 2 min warm-up at 2.5 mph. Speed was increased to 5 mph for 2 min, followed by 2 min at 6 mph, 2 min at 7 mph, and 2 min at 7.5 mph. At this point, incline was increased two percent every 2 min thereafter until the participant reached volitional exhaustion (ie., the felt like they could no longer continue running at the required speed and grade). Once the participant reached volitional exhaustion, they were instructed to cool down until they felt recovered.

Approximately five days later, participants performed their first 5km race between the hours of 6:30 am and 7:30 am. The time of day for each performance trial was consistent throughout the study. All performance trials were completed on a flat hard-surfaced 0.73 mile loop. Prior to each trial, participants completed visual analog scales pre and post a 1.5 mile warm-up run, regarding their feelings of fatigue and soreness within the quadriceps, hamstrings, gastrocnemius, lower body, and total body muscle groups. Visual analog scales were 15 cm lines where participants placed an “X” on the line indicating their feelings (with 0 = no fatigue or soreness and 15 = extreme fatigue or soreness). The visual analog scales evaluated participants’ status before the start of every time trial. Participants were also required to rate their perceived exertion (RPE) after the warm-up, prior to the start and during each 5km, to see if feelings of effort remained consistent between each trial, as well as during each lap and after each performance trial.

Participants underwent a 1.5 mile warm-up prior to every 5km performance trial (Kaufman & Ware, 1997). Participants completed successive 5km performance trials on two separate occasions. Immediately following a baseline 5km trial, runners recovered passively for 24 hrs (R24) or 72 hrs of passive recovery (R72) and then performed a second 5km trial. The 5km time trial sessions were in a counterbalanced order and were separated by 6-7 days of normal training. All participants were required to have 24 hrs of passive recovery prior to each baseline. Passive recovery was deemed as no exercise or extensive physical activity during the allotted recovery hours. During each time trial, average HR (HRave) and ending RPE (RPEend) were recorded to determine if effort for each 5km trial was consistent. All runners competed with runners of equal ability to simulate race day and hard training conditions with verbal encouragement provided often and equally to each participant. At the end of every performance trial, each runner was instructed to complete a low intensity 1.5 mile cool-down. Each testing session required approximately 60 min.

Statistical Analysis

Basic descriptive statistics were computed along with Repeated Measures of Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) for making comparisons between R72 and R24 performance trials regarding finishing times, HRave, RPEend, and fatigue/soreness responses. All statistical comparisons were made at an a priori p < 0.05 level of significance. Data was expressed as group mean + standard deviation and individual results.

In order to evaluate individual responses, data from each participant’s first 5km trial was compared to their second 5km trial using a paired T-test. The least significance group mean difference (p < 0.05) was determined and group mean finishing time was adjusted to determine the amount of change in seconds, between baseline and treatment trials, needed for significance. The time change between the first trial run and the adjusted baseline run was divided by the first trial run and expressed as a mean number of seconds and as a percent for both the R24 (9.5 secs or 0.8%) and R72 (7.0 secs or 0.6%) trials. The percent values were applied to each individual baseline time in order to determine how many seconds (positive or negative) the second performance trial time had to be over or under the first performance trial, in both R24 and R72 conditions, to quantify as a response. Participants were then labeled as non-responders, positive-responders (faster during successive trial), and negative-responders (slower during successive trial).

Results

Descriptive characteristics are found in Table 1. The participants were between the ages of 18 and 35 (majority of subjects were between ages of 20-28) years. All participants were trained runners or triathletes (where running was their specialty event).

Table 1
Participant (Males = 9 & Females = 3) Descriptive Statistics

Mean Standard Deviation

________________________________________________________________________

Males Females Group Males Females Group


Age (yrs)	25.6	22.0	24.7	5.0	1.0	4.6
Height (cm)	175.3	168.0	173.5	6.2	18.2	10.0
Weight (kg)	78.0	61.7	73.9	10.9	10.0	12.6
Body Fat (%)	10.9	21.9	13.7	1.3	2.0	5.1
VO2max (ml/kg/min)	63.3	59.7	62.4	5.0	7.9	5.6
Pre-study 5km Personal Best (min)	18:57	21:31	20:19	1:54	2:05	2:02
Average Weekly Mileage	31.7	30.1	30.5	7.4	7.7	7.5
Days Per Week	4.9	4.6	4.7	1.5	1.1	1.2

________________________________________________________________________

Mean finishing times, HRave, and RPEend for 1) R24 vs baseline and 2) R72 vs baseline are found in Table 2. R24 was significantly (p = 0.03) slower (10 secs) than baseline, where as R72 was not significantly (p = 0.21) different from baseline. Regarding HRave, no significant differences (p = 1.00) were found between R24 and baseline, yet R72HRave was significantly (p = 0.04) greater than baseline. Significance (p = 0.39) was not found between R24 RPEend and baseline, but R72 RPEend was significantly (p = 0.01) higher than baseline.

Table 2

Comparison of R24 (24 hrs) vs R72 (72 hrs) Trials

________________________________________________________________________

Baseline R24 Baseline R72

________________________________________________________________________

Finish Time (min)	19:49 + 1.9	19:59 + 1.9*	19:34 + 1.6	19:30 + 1.5
Average HR (b/min)	177.3 + 7.3	177.3 + 6.3	175.4 + 6.5	177.9 + 6.3*
Ending RPE	19.6 + 0.8	19.5 + 0.8	19.3 + 0.9	19.8 + 0.6*

________________________________________________________________________

R24 trials = 24 hrs of passive recovery between baseline and R24

R72 trials = 72 hrs of passive recovery between baseline and R72

*indicates significant difference between respective baseline trial.

Figure 1 displays individual differences between R24 and R72 performance trials. To be considered a non-responder, the individual time change had to fall within 0.8% of baseline performance for R24 and 0.6% of baseline performance for R72.

Figure 1. Changes in Individual Finishing Times (R72 vs R24)

Positive and negative responders (Table 3) were identified when individual time change was greater than 0.8% for R24 trials and 0.6% for R72 trials, with a positive responder being one whose 2nd performance trial time improved (expressed as a negative value) and a negative responder being one whose 2nd performance trial time slowed (expressed as a positive value).

Table 3

Comparison of Individual R24 and R72 Performance Trials
________________________________________________________________________

Participant Baseline R24 Time Baseline R72 Time

(min) (min) Change (min) (min) Change

(secs) (secs)

________________________________________________________________________

1	16:41	17:06	+25*	16:42	16:36	-6*
2	17:38	17:17	-21*	17:25	17:32	+7*
3	17:44	17:50	+6*	17.44	17:37	-7*
4	18:58	19:13	+15*	18:38	18:48	+10*
5	19:00	19:11	+11*	20:05	20:08	+3
6	19:05	19:38	+33*	19:35	19:49	+14*
7	20:17	20:09	-8*	19:49	19:48	-1
8	21:01	21:14	+13*	20:13	20:05	-8*
9	21:05	21:21	+16*	20:49	20:37	-12*
10	21:53	22:24	+31*	21:30	20:36	-54*
11	22:07	21:56	-11*	21:14	21:20	+6
12	22:18	22:25	+7*	21:05	21:02	-3
MEAN	19:49	19:59@	9.8	19:34	19:30	-4.3

________________________________________________________________________

R24 trials = 24 hrs of passive recovery between R24 and baseline

R72 trials = 72 hrs of passive recovery between R72 and baseline

* = responder

– = faster

+ = slower

@ = significance

Three individuals responded negatively to R72 by running a mean 10.3 + 5.7 secs slower during R72. Five individuals responded positively to R72 by running a mean 17.4 + 22.9 secs faster than baseline. Four individuals were considered non-responders to R72 with a mean time change of 3.3 + 1.8 secs.

Nine individuals responded negatively to R24 by running a mean 17.4 + 12.1 secs slower than baseline. Three individuals responded positively to R24 by running a mean 13.3 + 6.8 secs faster. There were no non-responders to the R24 trials. It is important to note that only two (participants 3 and 10) of three individuals who were negative responders to R72 also responded negatively to R24. Also, there were no individuals who positively responded to both R72 and R24.

There were no significant differences between R24 and baseline trials vs R72 and baseline trials for soreness and fatigue regarding pre and post warm-up scores on the fatigue/soreness visual analog scales (Table 4).

Table 4

Soreness and Fatigue Responses: R24 vs R72 Trials

________________________________________________________________________

Pre Warm-up Post Warm-up

________________________________________________________________________


		Soreness	Fatigue	Soreness	Fatigue
R24 Trials	Baseline	6.8 + 1.3	7.0 + 0.6	6.7 + 0.9	6.3 + 0.8
R24 Trials	Day 2	7.1 + 1.0	6.6 + 0.8	6.9 + 1.1	6.5 + 0.6
R72 Trials	Baseline	5.8 + 1.3	5.9 + 0.9	6.2 + 0.6	6.3 + 1.4
R72 Trials	Day 2	6.3 + 0.6	5.8 + 0.5	6.5 + 0.9	5.9 + 0.8

________________________________________________________________________

No significant differences were found between trials
Subjects appeared to be fully recovered before each trial

Discussion

The primary purpose of this study was to compare 5km racing performance after 24 hrs of passive recovery versus 72 hrs of passive recovery. Other than a few somewhat related studies by Bosak et al. (2008 & 2009), the necessary duration of passive recovery from 5km time trials has not previously been studied. Results indicate that 72 hrs of passive recovery, on average, permits maintenance of second 5km time trial performance, yet individual variability existed regarding rate of decline of 2nd trial performance. Individuals must therefore test themselves or coaches must test their athletes to determine optimal recovery time that allows for improved performance during successive 5km efforts.

R24 was significantly (p = 0.03) slower (10 secs) than baseline. However, no significant differences (p = 0.21) occurred between R72 and baseline (Table 2). Due to the catabolic nature of the running process, pain results from microtears and swelling (edema) within the muscle, which require sufficient passive recovery time prior to undergoing another intense running effort (Brown & Henderson, 2002). Increased passive recovery time can also be used to reduce the reflex muscle spasm and spastic conditions that accompany pain. Thus, it is logical to assume longer hours of passive recovery following a 5km race, may attenuate soreness and fatigue prior to the next race or hard running effort, which would potentially allow performance to be maintained or at least minimize impairment (Fitzgerald, 2007). Therefore, in this study, it is hypothesized that 72 hrs of passive recovery facilitated a more effective recovery allowing participants to actually run a few seconds faster than baseline. Since, subjects were required to have 24 hrs of passive recovery before each baseline it is likely that subjects were more fully recovered for R72 than for either baseline performance trial, thereby producing slight improvements during R72 performance trial.

There were no significant differences between R24 and baseline trials versus R72 and baseline trials for soreness and fatigue (Table 4) regarding pre and post warm-up scores on the fatigue/soreness visual analog scales. These results indicated that all runners tended to feel the same prior to each baseline and treatment trial. The assumption, therefore, is that each runner felt a similar level of preparedness before every trial. However, individual variability (Figure 1) existed among runners, which makes it important to focus on the effects of passive recovery (24 hrs and 72 hrs) on each individual.

Four individuals were considered non-responders to R72 with a mean time change of positive or negative 3.3 + 1.8 secs. It is possible that the intensity needed to complete the 5km performance trial was less than what was needed to fatigue these 4 non-responders.

Five individuals responded positively (Table 3) to R72 running a mean of 17.4 + 12.9 secs faster during the second trial. The potential reason for improved performance during R72 may be due to the fact that the 5 participants may have been in a more rested state as compared to their status prior to the first trial. Several of those subjects who did run faster during R72 verbally indicated that they “felt better” (regarding fatigue and muscle soreness) prior to the start of the second 5km as compared to how they were feeling before the baseline trial.

Despite the fact that as a group the participants ran a mean 10 seconds slower during R24 vs baseline, three individuals responded positively to R24 by running a mean 13.3 + 6.8 secs faster than baseline. The improvements during R24 could have been due to the fact that the 5km distance may not have been sufficient enough to fatigue these individuals from baseline, which allowed each runner to be recovered before the start of the second trial.

In terms of participants who ran slower (Table 3) during R24 and R72 performance trials, 9 individuals ran a mean time of 17.4 + 12.1 seconds slower after 24 hrs of passive recovery. Apparently, 24 hrs of passive recovery was not sufficient enough to allow muscle function to return to normal (Brown & Henderson, 2002). However, despite having 72 hrs of passive recovery, 3 participants still ran a mean of 10.3 + 5.7 secs slower than baseline. The decreased performance during R72 may have been a result of the runners having a “feeling of staleness” in their legs from completing no exercise for 72 hrs as explained by Mujika et al. (2001), where he suggested that many collegiate and post-collegiate runners often complain of feeling “stale” if they haven’t run in a few days. A potential loss of “feel” during exercise has been implied to occur in competitive athletes as a result of a reduction in training frequency (Mujika et al., 2001).

Despite R72 HRave being significantly (p = 0.04) greater than baseline and R24 HRave being the same as baseline, there were no consistent patterns of HRave and increased or decreased performance among participants during all R72 and R24 trials. It can be assumed that a lower HRave was associated with less effort since HR and intensity levels are related. However, only participant 7 ran faster and had a higher HRave during R24 and R72. During the R72 trials, only participants 4, 10, and 12 ran slower and had a lower HRave during second trial performance. During the R24 trials, only 1, 3, 5, 6, ran slower and had a lower HRave during second trial performance.

As for RPEend, no significant difference (p = 0.40) occurred between R24 and baseline, yet R72 was significantly (p = 0.01) greater than baseline. Also, scores on the pre and post warm-up fatigue/soreness visual analog scales were not significantly different between R24 and baseline trials vs R72 and baseline trials, indicating that all runners individually tended to feel the same prior to each 5km trial. Therefore, since inconsistencies exist between HRave, RPEend, and performance trials, while no significant differences occurred regarding fatigue/soreness responses, it is assumed that all participants displayed similar efforts during each 5km performance trial.

Conclusion

The results of the study indicate that 72 hrs of passive recovery, on average, permits maintenance of second day 5km performance. The study displays evidence that in most runners, 24 hrs of passive recovery did not provide sufficient recovery time for restoration of proper muscle function in agreement with Foss and Keteyian (1998) and Sinclair, Olgesby, & Pierpenburg (2003). For most runners, performance after 24 hrs of passive recovery may be impaired due to the inability to recruit sufficient muscle fibers in active muscles, as a result of residual muscle fatigue (Noakes, 2003). On average, more than 24 hrs of passive recovery is necessary for most runners to achieve optimal 5km race performance (Bosak et al., 2008). Since it was apparent that individual variability in recovery occurred in our study, individuals and coaches must therefore test themselves and their athletes to determine optimal recovery time, which may vary even within individuals depending upon other factors.

References

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Authors’ References:

Dept. of Sport Health Science, Life University, Marietta, GA 30060
Dept. of Kinesiology, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35401
Dept. of Health, PE, and Recreation, University of North Alabama, Florence, AL 35632
Dept. of Health and Human Performance, Georgia Southwestern State University, Americus, GA 31709
Dept. of Health, Exercise Science, and Secondary Education, Lee University, Cleveland, TN 37320

U.S. Sports Academy2016-10-20T13:58:44-05:00October 5th, 2009|Sports Exercise Science, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology|Comments Off